[Surgeon General’s Smoking Report,  health reports Continued from Part  96]

2004 The Health Consequences of Smoking: A Report of the Surgeon General.  Office of the Surgeon General (US); Office on Smoking and Health (US). Atlanta (GA): Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (US);  Forty years of reports. Cancers of stomach, uterine cervix, pancreas, kidney, acute myeloid leukemia, pneumonia, aneurysm, cataract, periodontitis. Conclusion “smoking generally diminishes the  health of smokers.”

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK44698/

Part 97 The Health Consequences of Smoking: A Report of the Surgeon General. 2004. Cancer. Lung, laryngeal, pharyngeal, esophageal, pancreatic, kidney, bladder, cervical, ovarian, endometrial, stomach, colorectal, prostate, leukemia, liver, brain, breast. References to Parts 93 to 96. A word of wisdom.

References

1. Adami H-O, Bergström R, Engholm G, Nyrén O, Wolk A, Ekbom A, Englund A, Baron J. A prospective study of smoking and risk of prostate cancer. International Journal of Cancer. 1996;67(6):764–8.[PubMed]

2. Adami H-O, Lund E, Bergström R, Meirik O. Cigarette smoking, alcohol consumption, and risk of breast cancer in young women. British Journal of Cancer. 1988;58(6):832–7. [PMC free article] [PubMed]

3. Adami J, Nyrén O, Bergström R, Ekbom A, Engholm G, Englund A, Glimelius B. Smoking and the risk of leukemia, lymphoma, and multiple myeloma (Sweden). Cancer Causes and Control. 1998;9(1):49–56. [PubMed]

4. Agudo A, González CA, Marcos G, Sanz M, Saigi E, Verge J, Boleda M, Ortego J. Consumption of alcohol, coffee, and tobacco, and gastric cancer in Spain. Cancer Causes and Control. 1992;3(2):137–43.[PubMed]

5. Ahlbom A, Navier IL, Norrell S, Olin R, Spännare B. Nonoccupational risk indicators for astrocytomas in adults. American Journal of Epidemiology. 1986;124(2):334–7. [PubMed]

6. Ahrens W, Jockel KH, Patzak W, Elsner G. Alcohol, smoking, and occupational factors in cancer of the larynx: a case-control study. American Journal of Industrial Medicine. 1991;20(4):477–93.[PubMed]

7. Alexandrie AK, Sundberg MI, Seidegard J, Tornling G, Rannug A. Genetic susceptibility to lung cancer with special emphasis on CYP1A1 and GSTM1: a study on host factors in relation to age at onset, gender, and histological cancer types. Carcinogenesis. 1994;15(9):1785–90.[PubMed]

8. Alexandrov K, Rojas M, Kadlubar FF, Lang NP, Bartsch H. Evidence of anti-benzo[a]pyrene diolepoxide-DNA adduct formation in human colon mucosa. Carcinogenesis. 1996;17(9):2081–3. [PubMed]

9. Almendingen K, Hofstad B, Trygg K, Hoff G, Hussain A, Vatn MH. Smoking and colorectal adenomas: a case–control study. European Journal of Cancer Prevention. 2000;9(3):193–203. [PubMed]

10. Ambrosone CB, Freudenheim JL, Graham S, Marshall JR, Vena JE, Brasure JR, Laughlin R, Nemoto T, Michalek AM, Harrington A, Ford TD, Shields PG. Cytochrome P4501A1 and glutathione S-transferase (M1) genetic polymorphisms and postmenopausal breast cancer risk. Cancer Research. 1995;55(16):3483–5. [PubMed]

11. Ambrosone CB, Freudenheim JL, Graham S, Marshall JR, Vena JE, Brasure JR, Michalek AM, Laughlin R, Nemoto T, Gillenwater KA, Harrington AM, Shields PG. Cigarette smoking, N-acetyltransferase 2 genetic polymorphisms, and breast cancer risk. Journal of the American Medical Association. 1996;276(18):1494–501. [PubMed]

12. American Cancer Society.  Cancer Facts & Figures, 2003. Atlanta: American Cancer Society; 2003. 

13. Anderson KE, Potter JD, Mack TM. Pancreatic cancer. In: Schottenfeld D, Fraumeni JF Jr, editors. Cancer Epidemiology and Prevention. 2nd ed. New York: Oxford University Press; 1996. pp. 725–71.

14. Andersson K. Mecamylamine pretreatment counteracts cigarette smoke induced changes in hypothalamic catecholamine neuron systems and in anterior pituitary function. Acta Physiologica Scandinavica. 1985;125(3):445–52. [PubMed]

15. Anttila S, Luostarinen L, Hirvonen A, Elovaara E, Karjalainen A, Nurminen T, Hayes JD, Vainio H, Ketterer B. Pulmonary expression of glutathione S-transferase M3 in lung cancer patients: association with GSTM1 polymorphism, smoking, and asbestos exposure. Cancer Research. 1995;55(15):3305–9. [PubMed]

16. Armitage P, Doll R. The age distribution of cancer and a multi-stage theory of carcinogenesis. British Journal of Cancer. 1954;8(1):1–11.[PMC free article] [PubMed]

17. Auerbach O, Stout AP, Hammond EC, Garfinkel L. Histologic changes in esophagus in relation to smoking habits. Archives of Environmental Health. 1965;11:4–15. [PubMed]

18. Augustine A, Harris RE, Wynder EL. Compensation as a risk factor for lung cancer in smokers who switch from nonfilter to filter cigarettes. American Journal of Public Health. 1989;79(2):188–91. [PMC free article] [PubMed]

19. Austin H, Cole P. Cigarette smoking and leukemia. Journal of Chronic Diseases. 1986;39(6):417–21. [PubMed]

20. Autrup H, Harris CC, Trump BF, Jeffrey AM. Metabolism of benzo(a)pyrene and identification of the major benzo(a)pyrene-DNA adducts in cultured human colon. Cancer Research. 1978;38(11 Pt 1):3689–96. [PubMed]

21. Bardhan KD, Graham DY, Hunt RH, O’Morain CA. Effects of smoking on cure of Helicobacter pylori infection and duodenal ulcer recurrence in patients treated with clarithromycin and omeprazole. Helicobacter. 1997;2(1):27–31. [PubMed]

22. Baron AE, Franceschi S, Barra S, Talamini R, La Vecchia C. A comparison of the joint effects of alcohol and smoking on the risk of cancer across sites in the upper aerodigestive tract. Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers and Prevention. 1993;2(6):519–23.[PubMed]

23. Baron JA, Byers T, Greenberg ER, Cummings KM, Swanson M. Cigarette smoking in women with cancers of the breast and reproductive organs. Journal of the National Cancer Institute. 1986;77(3):677–80. [PubMed]

24. Baron JA, Gerhardsson de Verdier M, Ekbom A. Coffee, tea, tobacco, and cancer of the large bowel. Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers and Prevention. 1994;3(7):565–70. [PubMed]

25. Baron JA, Haile RW. Protective effect of cigarette smoking on breast cancer risk in women with BRCA1 or BRCA2 mutations???

[editorial]

 Journal of the National Cancer Institute. 1998;90(10):726–7. [PubMed]

26. Baron JA, La Vecchia C, Levi F. The antiestrogenic effect of cigarette smoking in women. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology. 1990;162(2):502–14. [PubMed]

27. Baron JA, Newcomb PA, Longnecker MP, Mittendorf R, Storer BE, Clapp RW, Bogdan G, Yuen J. Cigarette smoking and breast cancer. Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers and Prevention. 1996;5(5):399–403.[PubMed]

28. Baron JA, Sandler RS, Haile RW, Mandel JS, Mott LA, Greenberg ER. Folate intake, alcohol consumption, cigarette smoking, and risk of colorectal adenomas. Journal of the National Cancer Institute. 1998;90(1):57–62. [PubMed]

29. Bartsch H, Castegnaro M, Camus AM, Schouft A, Geneste O, Rojas M, Alexandrov K. Analysis of DNA adducts in smokers’ lung and urothelium by 32P-postlabelling: metabolic phenotype dependence and comparisons with other exposure markers. IARC Scientific Publications. 1993;124:331–40. [PubMed]

30. Bateson MC. Cigarette smoking and Helicobacter pylori infection. Postgraduate Medical Journal. 1993;69(807):41–4. [PMC free article] [PubMed]

31. Battaglia G, Di Mario F, Pasini M, Donisi PM, Dotto P, Benvenuti ME, Stracca-Pansa V, Pasquino M. Helicobacter pylori infection, cigarette smoking and alcohol consumption: a histological and clinical study on 286 subjects. Italian Journal of Gastroenterology. 1993;25(8):419–24.[PubMed]

32. Bell DA, Taylor JA, Butler MA, Stephens EA, Wiest J, Brubaker LH, Kadlubar FF, Lucier GW. Genotype/phenotype discordance for human arylamine N-acetyltransferase (NAT2) reveals a new slow-acetylator allele common in African-Americans. Carcinogenesis. 1993;14(8):1689–92. [PubMed]

33. Benhamou S, Benhamou E. The effect of age at smoking initiation on lung cancer risk

[letter]

 Epidemiology. 1994;5(5):560. [PubMed]

34. Benhamou S, Benhamou E, Auquier A, Flamant R. Differential effects of tar content, type of tobacco and use of a filter on lung cancer risk in male cigarette smokers. International Journal of Epidemiology. 1994;23(3):437–43. [PubMed]

35. Benhamou S, Lee WJ, Alexandrie A-K, Boffetta P, Bouchardy C, Butkiewicz D, Brockmöller J, Clapper ML, Daly A, Dolzan V, Ford J, Gaspari L, Haugen A, Hirvonen A, Husgafvel-Pursiainen K, Ingelman-Sundberg M, Kalina I, Kihara M, Kremers P, Le Marchand L, London SJ, Nazar-Stewart V, Onon-Kihara M, Rannug A, Romkes M, Ryberg D, Seidegard J, Shields P, Strange RC, Stücker I, To-Figueras J, Brennan P, Taioli E. Meta- and pooled analyses of the effects of glutathione S-transferase M1 polymorphisms and smoking on lung cancer risk. Carcinogenesis. 2002;23(8):1343–50. [See also erratum in Carcinogenesis 2002;23(10):1771–2] [PubMed]

36. Bennett WP, Hussain SP, Vahakangas KH, Khan MA, Shields PG, Harris CC. Molecular epidemiology of human cancer risk: gene-environment interactions and p53 mutation spectrum in human lung cancer. Journal of Pathology. 1999;187(1):8–18. [PubMed]

37. Berenblum I, Shubik P. A new, quantitative, approach to the study of the stages of chemical carcinogenesis in the mouse’s skin. British Journal of Cancer. 1947;1(4):383–91. [PMC free article] [PubMed]

38. Betticher DC, White GR, Vonlathen S, Liu X, Kappeler A, Altermatt HJ, Thatcher N, Heighway J. G1 control gene status is frequently altered in resectable non-small cell lung cancer. International Journal of Cancer. 1997;74(5):556–62. [PubMed]

39. Blaser MJ. Hypothesis: the changing relationships of Helicobacter pylori and humans: implications for health and disease. Journal of Infectious Diseases. 1999a;179(6):1523–30. [PubMed]

40. Blaser MJ. In a world of black and white, Helicobacter pylori is gray. Annals of Internal Medicine. 1999b;130(8):695–7. [PubMed]

41. Blot WJ. Esophageal cancer trends and risk factors. Seminars in Oncology. 1994;21(4):403–10. [PubMed]

42. Blot WJ, Devesa SS, Kneller RW, Fraumeni JF Jr. Rising incidence of adenocarcinoma of the esophagus and gastric cardia. Journal of the American Medical Association. 1991;265(10):1287–9. [PubMed]

43. Blot WJ, Fraumeni JF Jr. Cancers of the lung and pleura. In: Schottenfeld D, Fraumeni JF Jr, editors. Cancer Epidemiology and Prevention. New York: Oxford University Press; 1996. pp. 637–65.

44. Blot WJ, McLaughlin JK. The changing epidemiology of esophageal cancer. Seminars in Oncology. 1999;26(5 Suppl 15):2–8. [PubMed]

45. Blot WJ, McLaughlin JK, Devesa SS, Fraumeni JF Jr. Cancers of the oral cavity and pharynx. In: Schottenfeld D, Fraumeni JF Jr, editors. Cancer Epidemiology and Prevention. 2nd ed. New York: Oxford University Press; 1996. pp. 666–80.

46. Blot WJ, McLaughlin JK, Winn DM, Austin DF, Greenberg RS, Preston-Martin S, Bernstein L, Schoenberg JB, Stemhagen A, Fraumeni JF Jr. Smoking and drinking in relation to oral and pharyngeal cancer. Cancer Research. 1988;48(11):3282–7. [PubMed]

47. Blowers L, Preston-Martin S, Mack WJ. Dietary and other lifestyle factors of women with brain gliomas in Los Angeles County (California, USA). Cancer Causes and Control. 1997;8(1):5–12.[PubMed]

48. Boeing H, Frentzel-Beyme R, Berger M, Berndt V, Göres W, Körner M, Lohmeier R, Menarcher A, Männl HFK, Meinhardt M, Müller R, Ostermeier H, Paul F, Schwemmle K, Wagner KH, Wahrendorf J. Case-control study on stomach cancer in Germany. International Journal of Cancer. 1991;47(6):858–64. [PubMed]

49. Bolton-Smith C, Casey CE, Gey KF, Smith WCS, Tunstall-Pedoe H. Antioxidant vitamin intakes assessed using a food-frequency questionnaire: correlation with biochemical status in smokers and non-smokers. British Journal of Nutrition. 1991;65(3):337–46. [PubMed]

50. Bondy ML, Wang L-E, El-Zein R, de Andrade M, Selvan MS, Bruner JM, Levin VA, Alfred Yung WK, Adatto P, Wei Q. ?-Radiation sensitivity and risk of glioma. Journal of the National Cancer Institute. 2001;93(20):1553–7. [PubMed]

51. Bos JL. ras Oncogenes in human cancer: a review. Cancer Research. 1989;49(17):4682–9. [PubMed]

52. Bosch FX, Lorincz A, Muñoz N, Meijer CJLM, Shah KV. The causal relation between human papilloma-virus and cervical cancer. Journal of Clinical Pathology. 2002;55(4):244–65. [PMC free article] [PubMed]

53. Bosch FX, Manos MM, Muñoz N, Sherman M, Jansen AM, Peto J, Schiffman MH, Moreno V, Kurman R, Shah KV. Prevalence of human papillomavirus in cervical cancer: a worldwide perspective. International Biological Study on Cervical Cancer (IBSCC) Study Group. Journal of the National Cancer Institute. 1995;87(11):796–802.[PubMed]

54. Bosch FX, Muñoz N, de Sanjosé S, Izarzugaza I, Gili M, Viladiu P, Tormo MJ, Moreo P, Ascunce N, Gonzalez LC, Tafur L, Kaldor JM, Guerrero E, Aristizabal N, Santamaria M, Alonso de Ruiz P, Shah K. Risk factors for cervical cancer in Colombia and Spain. International Journal of Cancer. 1992;52(5):750–8. [PubMed]

55. Botterweck AAM, Schouten LJ, Volovics A, Dorant E, van den Brandt PA. Trends in incidence of adeno-carcinoma of the oesophagus and gastric cardia in ten European countries. International Journal of Epidemiology. 2000;29(4):645–54. [PubMed]

56. Bouquot JE. Oral leukoplakia and erythroplakia: a review and update. Practical Periodontics and Aesthetic Dentistry. 1994;6(6):9–17.[PubMed]

57. Boutron M-C, Faivre J, Dop M-C, Quipourt V, Senesse P. Tobacco, alcohol, and colorectal tumors: a multistep process. American Journal of Epidemiology. 1995;141(11):1038–46. [PubMed]

58. Bowlin SJ, Leske MC, Varma A, Nasca P, Weinstein A, Caplan L. Breast cancer risk and alcohol consumption: results from a large case-control study. International Journal of Epidemiology. 1997;26(5):915–23. [PubMed]

59. Brash DE, Rudolph JA, Simon JA, Lin A, McKenna GJ, Baden HP, Halperin AJ, Ponten J. A role for sunlight in skin cancer: UV-induced p53 mutations in squamous cell carcinoma. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 1991;88(22):10124–8. [PMC free article] [PubMed]

60. Brennan JA, Boyle JO, Koch WM, Goodman SN, Hruban RH, Eby YJ, Couch MJ, Forastiere AA, Sidransky D. Association between cigarette smoking and mutation of the p53 gene in squamous-cell carcinoma of the head and neck. New England Journal of Medicine. 1995;332(11):712–7. [PubMed]

61. Brenner H, Rothenbacher D, Bode G, Adler G. Relation of smoking and alcohol and coffee consumption to active Helicobacter pylori infection: cross sectional study. British Medical Journal. 1997;315(7121):1489–92. [PMC free article] [PubMed]

62. Bressac B, Kew M, Wands J, Ozturk M. Selective G to T mutations of p53 gene in hepatocellular carcinoma from southern Africa. Nature. 1991;350(6317):429–31. [PubMed]

63. Breuer T, Kim JG, el-Zimaity HMT, Nikajima S, Ota H, Osato M, Graham DY. Clarithromycin, amoxycillin, and H2-receptor antagonist therapy for Helicobacter pylori peptic ulcer disease in Korea. Alimentary Pharmacology and Therapeutics. 1997a;11(5):939–42.[PubMed]

64. Breuer T, Kim JG, Gurer IE, Graham DP, Osato M, Genta RM, Graham DY. Successful low-dose amoxycillin, metronidazole and omeprazole combination therapy in a population with a high frequency of metronidazole-resistant Helicobacter pylori. Alimentary Pharmacology and Therapeutics. 1997b;11(3):523–7. [PubMed]

65. Breuer-Katschinski B, Nemes K, Marr A, Rump B, Leiendecker B, Breuer N, Goebell H. Colorectal Adenoma Study Group. Alcohol and cigarette smoking and the risk of colorectal adenomas. Digestive Diseases and Sciences. 2000;45(3):487–93. [PubMed]

66. Bringuier PP, McCredie M, Sauter G, Bilous M, Stewart J, Mihatsch MJ, Kleihues P, Ohgaki H. Carcinomas of the renal pelvis associated with smoking and phenacetin abuse: p53 mutations and polymorphism of carcinogen-metabolising enzymes. International Journal of Cancer. 1998;79(5):531–6. [PubMed]

67. Brinton LA, Schairer C, Stanford JL, Hoover RN. Cigarette smoking and breast cancer. American Journal of Epidemiology. 1986;123(4):614–22. [PubMed]

68. Brockmoller J, Kerb R, Drakoulis N, Nitz M, Roots I. Genotype and phenotype of glutathione S-transferase class mu isoenzymes mu and psi in lung cancer patients and controls. Cancer Research. 1993;53(5):1004–11. [PubMed]

69. Bross IDJ, Gibson R. Risks of lung cancer in smokers who switch to filter cigarettes. American Journal of Public Health. 1968;58(8):1396–403. [PMC free article] [PubMed]

70. Brown LM, Gibson R, Blair A, Burmeister LF, Schuman LM, Cantor KP, Fraumeni JF Jr. Smoking and risk of leukemia. American Journal of Epidemiology. 1992;135(7):763–8. [PubMed]

71. Brown LM, Hoover RN, Greenberg RS, Schoenberg JB, Schwartz AG, Swanson GM, Liff JM, Silverman DT, Hayes RB, Pottern LM. Are racial differences in squamous cell esophageal cancer explained by alcohol and tobacco use? Journal of the National Cancer Institute. 1994;86(17):1340–5. [PubMed]

72. Brownson RC. Cigarette smoking and risk of leukemia. Journal of Clinical Epidemiology. 1989;42(10):1025–8. [PubMed]

73. Brownson RC, Chang JC. Exposure to alcohol and tobacco and the risk of laryngeal cancer. Archives of Environmental Health. 1987;42(4):192–6. [PubMed]

74. Brownson RC, Chang JC, Davis JR. Cigarette smoking and risk of adult leukemia. American Journal of Epidemiology. 1991;134(9):938–41.[PubMed]

75. Brownson RC, Novotny TE, Perry MC. Cigarette smoking and adult leukemia: a meta-analysis. Archives of Internal Medicine. 1993;153(4):469–75. [PubMed]

76. Brownson RC, Reif JS, Chang JC, Davis JR. An analysis of occupational risks for brain cancer. American Journal of Public Health. 1990;80(2):169–72. [PMC free article] [PubMed]

77. Brunet J-S, Ghadirian P, Rebbeck TR, Lerman C, Garber JE, Tonin PN, Abrahamson J, Foulkes WD, Daly M, Wagner-Costalas J, Godwin A, Olopade OI, Moslehi R, Liede A, Futreal PA, Weber BL, Lenoir GM, Lynch HT, Narod SA. Effect of smoking on breast cancer in carriers of mutant BRCA1 or BRCA2 genes. Journal of the National Cancer Institute. 1998;90(10):761–6. [PubMed]

78. Brunnemann KD, Hornby AP, Stich HF. Tobacco-specific nitrosamines in the saliva of Inuit snuff dippers in the Northwest Territories of Canada. Cancer Letters. 1987;37(1):7–16. [PubMed]

79. Burch JD, Craib KJP, Choi BCK, Miller AB, Risch HA, Howe GR. An exploratory case-control study of brain tumors in adults. Journal of the National Cancer Institute. 1987;78(4):601–9. [PubMed]

80. Burch JD, Howe GR, Miller AB, Semenciw R. Tobacco, alcohol, asbestos, and nickel in the etiology of cancer of the larynx: a case-control study. Journal of the National Cancer Institute. 1981;67(6):1219–24. [PubMed]

81. Burns DM, Shanks TG, Choi W, Thun MJ, Heath CW Jr, Garfinkel L. The American Cancer Society Cancer Prevention Study I. 12-year followup of 1 million men and women. Changes in Cigarette-Related Disease Risks and Their Implication for Prevention and Control. In: Shopland DR, Burns DM, Garfinkel L, Samet JM, editors. Smoking and Tobacco Control, Monograph No 8. Bethesda (MD): U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, National Institutes of Health, National Cancer Institute; 1997. NIH Publication No. 97–4213.

82. Califano J, van der Reit P, Westra W, Nawroz H, Clayman G, Piantadosi S, Corio R, Lee D, Greenberg B, Koch W, Sidransky D. Genetic progression model for head and neck cancer: implications for field cancerization. Cancer Research. 1996;56(11):2488–92. [PubMed]

83. Calle EE, Miracle-McMahill HL, Thun MJ, Heath CW Jr. Cigarette smoking and risk of fatal breast cancer. American Journal of Epidemiology. 1994;139(10):1001–7. [PubMed]

84. Calle EE, Miracle-McMahill HL, Thun MJ, Heath CW Jr. Estrogen replacement therapy and risk of fatal colon cancer in a prospective cohort of postmeno-pausal women. Journal of the National Cancer Institute. 1995;87(7):517–23. [PubMed]

85. Carmella SG, Kagan SS, Kagan M, Foiles PG, Palladino G, Quart AM, Quart E, Hecht SS. Mass spectrometric analysis of tobacco-specific nitrosamine hemoglobin adducts in snuff dippers, smokers, and non-smokers. Cancer Research. 1990;50(17):5438–45. [PubMed]

86. Carstensen JM, Pershagen G, Eklund G. Mortality in relation to cigarette and pipe smoking: 16 years’ observation of 25,000 Swedish men. Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health. 1987;41(2):166–72. [PMC free article] [PubMed]

87. Cartwright RA, Darwin C, McKinney PA, Roberts B, Richards ID, Bird CC. Acute myeloid leukemia in adults: a case-control study in Yorkshire. Leukemia. 1988;2(10):687–90. [PubMed]

88. Castellsagué X, Muñoz N, De Stefani E, Victora CG, Castelletto R, Rolón PA, Quintana MJ. Independent and joint effects of tobacco smoking and alcohol drinking on the risk of esophageal cancer in men and women. International Journal of Cancer. 1999;82(5):657–64.[PubMed]

89. Castle PE, Wacholder S, Lorincz AT, Scott DR, Sherman ME, Glass AG, Rush BB, Schussler JE, Schiffman M. A prospective study of high-grade cervical neoplasia risk among human papillomavirus-infected women. Journal of the National Cancer Institute. 2002;94(18):1406–14.[PubMed]

90. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Cigarette smoking among adults—United States, 2000. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report. 2002a;51(29):642–5. [PubMed]

91. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Trends in cigarette smoking among high school students— United States, 1991–2001. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report. 2002b;51(19):409–12.[PubMed]

92. Cerhan JR, Torner JC, Lynch CF, Rubenstein LM, Lemke JH, Cohen MB, Lubaroff DM, Wallace RB. Association of smoking, body mass, and physical activity with risk of prostate cancer in the Iowa 65+ Rural Health Study (United States). Cancer Causes and Control. 1997;8(2):229–38. [PubMed]

93. Chacko M, Gupta RC. Evaluation of DNA damage in the oral mucosa of tobacco users and non-users by 32P-adduct assay. Carcinogenesis. 1988;9(12):2309–13. [PubMed]

94. Chan FKL, Sung JJY, Lee YT, Leung WK, Chan LY, Yung MY, Chung SCS. Does smoking predispose to peptic ulcer relapse after eradication of Helicobacter pylori? American Journal of Gastroenterology. 1997;92(3):442–5. [PubMed]

95. Chan JM, Stampfer MJ, Giovannucci E, Gann PH, Ma J, Wilkinson P, Hennekens CH, Pollak M. Plasma insulin-like growth factor-I and prostate cancer risk: a prospective study. Science. 1998;279(5350):563–6. [PubMed]

96. Chao A, Thun MJ, Jacobs EJ, Henley SJ, Rodriguez C, Calle EE. Cigarette smoking and colorectal cancer mortality in the Cancer Prevention Study II. Journal of the National Cancer Institute. 2000;92(23):1888–96. [PubMed]

97. Chen Y-P, Johnson GK, Squier CA. Effects of nicotine and tobacco-specific nitrosamines on hamster cheek pouch and gastric mucosa. Journal of Oral Pathology and Medicine. 1994;23(6):251–5. [PubMed]

98. Cheng L, Eicher SA, Guo Z, Hong WK, Spitz MR, Wei Q. Reduced DNA repair capacity in head and neck cancer patients. Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers and Prevention. 1998;7(6):465–8. [PubMed]

99. Cheng L, Spitz MR, Hong WK, Wei Q. Reduced expression levels of nucleotide excision repair genes in lung cancer: a case-control analysis. Carcinogenesis. 2000a;21(8):1527–30. [PubMed]

100. Cheng YW, Chen CY, Lin P, Huang KH, Lin TS, Wu MH, Lee H. DNA adduct level in lung tissue may act as a risk biomarker of lung cancer. European Journal of Cancer. 2000b;36(11):11381–8. [PubMed]

101. Chiesa R, Donato F, Tagger A, Favret M, Ribero ML, Nardi G, Gelatti U, Bucella E, Tomasi E, Portolani N, Bonetti M, Bettini L, Pelizzari G, Salmi A, Savio A, Garatti M, Callea F. Etiology of hepatocellular carcinoma in Italian patients with and without cirrhosis. Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers and Prevention. 2000;9(2):213–6. [PubMed]

102. Chiu BC, Lynch CF, Cerhan JR, Cantor KP. Cigarette smoking and risk of bladder, pancreas, kidney, and colorectal cancers in Iowa. Annals of Epidemiology. 2001;11(1):28–37. [PubMed]

103. Cho JY, Kim JH, Lee YH, Chung KY, Kim SK, Gong SJ, You NC, Chung HC, Roh JK, Kim BS. Correlation between K-ras gene mutation and prognosis of patients with nonsmall cell lung carcinoma. Cancer. 1997;79(3):462–7. [PubMed]

104. Choi SY, Kahyo H. Effect of cigarette smoking and alcohol consumption in the aetiology of cancer of the oral cavity, pharynx and larynx. International Journal of Epidemiology. 1991;20(4):878–85.[PubMed]

105. Chow W-H, Swanson CA, Lissowska J, Groves FD, Sobin LH, Nasierowska-Guttmejer A, Radziszewski J, Regula J, Hsing AW, Jagannatha S, Zatonski W, Blot WJ. Risk of stomach cancer in relation to consumption of cigarettes, alcohol, tea and coffee in Warsaw, Poland. International Journal of Cancer. 1999;81(6):871–6. [PubMed]

106. Chu KC, Tarone RE, Chow W-H, Hankey BF, Ries LAG. Temporal patterns in colorectal cancer incidence, survival, and mortality from 1950 through 1990. Journal of the National Cancer Institute. 1994;86(13):997–1006. [PubMed]

107. Chu SY, Lee NC, Wingo PA, Webster LA. Alcohol consumption and the risk of breast cancer. American Journal of Epidemiology. 1989;130(5):867–77. [PubMed]

108. Chu SY, Stroup NE, Wingo PA, Lee NC, Peterson HB, Gwinn ML. Cigarette smoking and the risk of breast cancer. American Journal of Epidemiology. 1990;131(2):244–53. [PubMed]

109. Churg A. Lung cancer cell type and occupational exposure. In: Samet JM, editor. Epidemiology of Lung Cancer. New York: Marcel Dekker; 1994. pp. 413–36.

110. Chute CG, Willett WC, Colditz GA, Stampfer MJ, Baron JA, Rosner B, Speizer FE. A prospective study of body mass, height, and smoking on the risk of colorectal cancer in women. Cancer Causes and Control. 1991;2(2):117–24. [PubMed]

111. Chyou P-H, Nomura AMY, Stemmermann GN. A prospective study of colon and rectal cancer among Hawaii Japanese men. Annals of Epidemiology. 1996;6(4):276–82. [PubMed]

112. Clavel-Chapelon F, Mortimer N, Guibout C. Wine, beer, coffee and tobacco consumption and the risk of breast cancer: results of a French case-control study. Journal of Epidemiology and Biostatistics. 1997;2(2):95–104.

113. Cleaver JE. Defective DNA repair replication of DNA in xerodema pigmentosum. Nature. 1968;218(142):652–6. [PubMed]

114. Collaborative Group on Hormonal Factors in Breast Cancer. Alcohol, tobacco and breast cancer— collaborative reanalysis of individual data from 53 epidemiological studies, including 58 515 women with breast cancer and 95 067 women without the disease. British Journal of Cancer. 2002;87(11):1234–45. [PMC free article] [PubMed]

115. Collett JA, Burt MJ, Frampton CM, Yeo KH, Chapman TM, Buttimore RC, Cook HB, Chapman BA. Seroprevalence of Helicobacter pylori in the adult population of Christchurch: risk factors and relationship to dyspeptic symptoms and iron studies. New Zealand Medical Journal. 1999;112(1093):292–5. [PubMed]

116. Conney A. Pharmacological implications of microsomal enzyme induction. Pharmacological Reviews. 1967;19(3):317–66. [PubMed]

117. Cooper JA, Rohan TE, Cant ELM, Horsfall DJ, Tilley WD. Risk factors for breast cancer by oestrogen receptor status: a population-based case-control study. British Journal of Cancer. 1989;59(1):119–25. [PMC free article] [PubMed]

118. Cope GF, Wyatt JI, Pinder IF, Lee PN, Heatley RV, Kelleher J. Alcohol consumption in patients with colorectal adenomatous polyps. Gut. 1991;32(1):70–2. [PMC free article] [PubMed]

119. Correa P. Human gastric carcinogenesis: a multistep and multifactorial process—First American Cancer Society Award Lecture on Cancer Epidemiology and Prevention. Cancer Research. 1992;52(24):6735–40.[PubMed]

120. Correa P, Fontham E, Pickle LW, Chen V, Lin YP, Haenszel W. Dietary determinants of gastric cancer in south Louisiana inhabitants. Journal of the National Cancer Institute. 1985;75(4):645–54. [PubMed]

121. Cosma G, Crofts F, Taioli E, Toniolo P, Garte S. Relationship between genotype and function of the human CYP1A1 gene. Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health. 1993;40(2–3):309–16.[PubMed]

122. Couch FJ, Cerhan JR, Vierkant RA, Grabrick DM, Therneau TM, Pankratz VS, Hartmann LC, Olson JE, Vachon CM, Sellers TA. Cigarette smoking increases risk for breast cancer in high-risk breast cancer families. Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers and Prevention. 2001;10(4):327–32. [PubMed]

123. Coughlin SS, Calle EE, Patel AV, Thun MJ. Predictors of pancreatic cancer mortality among a large cohort of United States adults. Cancer Causes and Control. 2000;11(10):915–23. [PubMed]

124. Coughlin SS, Neaton JD, Sengupta A. Cigarette smoking as a predictor of death from prostate cancer in 348,874 men screened for the Multiple Risk Factor Intervention Trial. American Journal of Epidemiology. 1996;143(10):1002–6. [PubMed]

125. Coultas DB, Howard CA, Peake GT, Skipper BJ, Samet JM. Discrepancies between self-reported and validated cigarette smoking in a community survey of New Mexico Hispanics. American Review of Respiratory Disease. 1988;137(4):810–4. [PubMed]

126. Craanen ME, Dekker W, Blok P, Ferwerda J, Tytgat GNJ. Time trends in gastric carcinoma: changing patterns of type and location. American Journal of Gastroenterology. 1992;87(5):572–9. [PubMed]

127. Creek L, Capehart T, Grise V.  U.S. Tobacco Statistics, 1935–92.Washington: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service, Commodity Economics Division; 1994. Statistical Bulletin No. 869.

128. Crofts F, Taioli E, Trachman J, Cosma GN, Currie D, Toniolo P, Garte SJ. Functional significance of different human CYP1A1 genotypes. Carcinogenesis. 1994;15(12):2961–3. [PubMed]

129. Cross CE, Halliwell B. Nutrition and human disease: how much extra vitamin C might smokers need

[letter]

? Lancet. 1993;341(8852):1091.[PubMed]

130. Cutler AF, Schubert TT. Patient factors affecting Helicobacter pylorieradication with triple therapy. American Journal of Gastroenterology. 1993;88(4):505–9. [PubMed]

131. Dai WS, Gutai JP, Kuller LH, Cauley JA. Cigarette smoking and serum sex hormones in men. American Journal of Epidemiology. 1988;128(4):796–805. [PubMed]

132. Dalbey WE, Nettesheim P, Griesemer R, Caton JE, Guerin MR. Chronic inhalation of cigarette smoke by F344 rats. Journal of the National Cancer Institute. 1980;64(2):383–90. [PubMed]

133. Daling JR, Madeleine MM, McKnight B, Carter JJ, Wipf GC, Ashley R, Schwartz SM, Beckmann AM, Hagensee ME, Mandelson MT, Gallaway DA. The relationship of human papillomavirus-related cervical tumors to cigarette smoking, oral contraceptive use, and prior herpes simplex virus type 2 infection. Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers and Prevention. 1996;5(7):541–8. [PubMed]

134. Daly AK, Cholerton S, Armstrong M, Idle JR. Genotyping for polymorphisms in xenobiotic metabolism as a predictor of disease susceptibility. Environmental Health Perspectives. 1994;102(Suppl 9):55–61. [PMC free article] [PubMed]

135. Daniell HW. A worse prognosis for smokers with prostate cancer. Journal of Urology. 1995;154(1):153–7. [PubMed]

136. D’Avanzo B, La Vecchia C, Franceschi S, Gallotti L, Talamini R. Cigarette smoking and colorectal cancer: a study of 1,584 cases and 2,879 controls. Preventive Medicine. 1995;24(6):571–9. [PubMed]

137. Davis BR, Whitehead JK, Gill ME, Lee PN, Butterworth AD, Roe JFC. Response of rat lung to inhaled tobacco smoke with or without prior exposure to 3,4-benzpyrene (BP) given by intratracheal instillation. British Journal of Cancer. 1975;31(4):469–84. [PMC free article] [PubMed]

138. Dawsey SM, Lewin KJ, Wang G-Q, Liu F-S, Nieberg RK, Yu Y, Li J-Y, Blot WJ, Li B, Taylor PR. Squamous esophageal histology and subsequent risk of squamous cell carcinoma of the esophagus. Cancer. 1994;74(6):1686–92. [PubMed]

139. Dawsey SM, Shen Q, Nieberg RK, Liu SF, English SA, Cao J, Zhou B, Wang GQ, Lewin KJ, Liu FS, Roth MJ, Taylor PR. Studies of esophageal balloon cytology in Linxian, China. Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers and Prevention. 1997;6(2):121–30. [PubMed]

140. Dawsey SM, Wang GQ, Weinstein WM, Lewin KJ, Liu FS, Wiggett S, Nieberg RK, Li JY, Taylor PR. Squamous dysplasia and early esophageal cancer in the Linxian region of China: distinctive endoscopic lesions. Gastroenterology. 1993;105(5):1333–40. [PubMed]

141. De Gregorio L, Manenti G, Incarbone M, Pilotti S, Pastorino U, Pierotti MA, Dragani TA. Prognostic value of loss of heterozygosity and KRAS2 mutations in lung adenocarcinoma. International Journal of Cancer. 1998;79(3):269–72. [PubMed]

142. d’Errico A, Malats N, Vineis P, Boffetta P.  IARC Scientific Publications. 148. 1999. Review of studies of selected metabolic polymorphisms and cancer; pp. 323–93. [PubMed]

143. De Stefani E, Boffetta P, Carzoglio J, Mendilaharsu S, Deneo-Pellegrini H. Tobacco smoking and alcohol drinking as risk factors for stomach cancer: a case-control study in Uruguay. Cancer Causes and Control. 1998;9(3):321–9. [PubMed]

144. De Stefani E, Correa P, Oreggia F, Leiva J, Rivero S, Fernandez G, Deneo-Pellegrini H, Zavala D, Fontham E. Risk factors for laryngeal cancer. Cancer. 1987;60(12):3087–91. [PubMed]

145. de Vos S, Miller CW, Takeuchi S, Gombart AF, Cho SK, Koeffler HP. Alterations of CDKN2 (p16) in non-small cell lung cancer. Genes, Chromosomes & Cancer. 1995;14(3):164–70. [PubMed]

146. Deacon JM, Evans CD, Yule R, Desai M, Binns W, Taylor C, Peto J. Sexual behavior and smoking as determinants of cervical HPV infection and of CIN3 among those infected: a case-control study nested within the Manchester cohort. British Journal of Cancer. 2000;83(11):1565–72.[PMC free article] [PubMed]

147. Degawa M, Stern SJ, Martin MV, Guengerich FP, Fu PP, Ilett KF, Kadserlik RK, Kadlubar FF. Metabolic activation and carcinogenic-DNA adduct detection in human larynx. Cancer Research. 1994;54(18):4915–9. [PubMed]

148. Deitz AC, Doll MA, Hein DW. A restriction fragment polymorphism assay that differentiates nine human N-acetyltransferase-1 (NAT1) alleles. Analytical Biochemistry. 1997;253(2):219–24. [PubMed]

149. Denissenko MF, Chen JX, Tang MS, Pfeifer GP. Cytosine methylation determines hot spots of DNA damage in the human P53 gene. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 1997;94(8):3893–8. [PMC free article] [PubMed]

150. Denissenko MF, Pao A, Jang M, Pfeifer GP. Preferential formation of benzo[a]pyrene adducts at lung cancer mutational hotspots in P53. Science. 1996;274(5286):430–2. [PubMed]

151. Devesa SS, Fraumeni JF Jr. The rising incidence of gastric cardia cancer [editorial] Journal of the National Cancer Institute. 1999;91(9):747–9. [PubMed]

152. Djordjevic MV, Stellman SD, Zang E. Doses of nicotine and lung carcinogens delivered to cigarette smokers. Journal of the National Cancer Institute. 2000;92(2):106–11. [PubMed]

153. Dolan K, Garde J, Walker SJ, Sutton R, Gosney J, Field JK. LOH at the sites of the DCC, APC, and TP53 tumor suppressor genes occurs in Barrett’s metaplasia and dysplasia adjacent to adenocarcinoma of the esophagus. Human Pathology. 1999;30(12):1508–14. [PubMed]

154. Doll R. Cancers weakly related to smoking. British Medical Bulletin. 1996;52(1):35–49. [PubMed]

155. Doll R, Hill A. Lung cancer and other causes of death in relation to smoking: a second report on the mortality of British doctors. British Medical Journal. 1956;2(5001):1071–81. [PMC free article] [PubMed]

156. Doll R, Hill AB. The mortality of doctors in relation to their smoking habits: a preliminary report. British Medical Journal. 1954;1:1451–5.[PMC free article] [PubMed]

157. Doll R, Peto R. Cigarette smoking and bronchial carcinoma: dose and time relationships among regular smokers and lifelong non-smokers. Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health. 1978;32(4):303–13.[PMC free article] [PubMed]

158. Doll R, Peto R, Wheatley K, Gray R, Sutherland I. Mortality in relation to smoking: 40 years’ observations on male British doctors. British Medical Journal. 1994;309(6959):901–11. [PMC free article] [PubMed]

159. Dosemeci M, Gokmen I, Unsal M, Hayes RB, Blair A. Tobacco, alcohol use, and risks of laryngeal and lung cancer by subsite and histologic type in Turkey. Cancer Causes and Control. 1997;8(5):729–37. [PubMed]

160. Easton DF, Ford D, Bishop DT. Breast and ovarian cancer incidence in BRCA1-mutation carriers. American Journal of Human Genetics. 1995;56(1):256–71. [PMC free article] [PubMed]

161. Eastwood GL. Is smoking still important in the pathogenesis of peptic ulcer disease? Journal of Clinical Gastroenterology. 1997;25(Suppl 1):S1–S7. [PubMed]

162. Economou P, Lechner JF, Samet JM. Familial and genetic factors in the pathogenesis of lung cancer. In: Samet JM, editor. Epidemiology of Lung Cancer. New York: Marcel Dekker; 1994. pp. 353–96.

163. Eluf-Neto J, Booth M, Munoz N, Bosch FX, Meijer CJ, Walboomers JM. Human papillomavirus and invasive cervical cancer in Brazil. British Journal of Cancer. 1994;69(1):114–9. [PMC free article] [PubMed]

164. El-Zein R, Bondy ML, Wang L-E, de Andrade M, Sigurdson AJ, Bruner JM, Kyritsis AP, Levin VA, Wei Q. Increased chromosomal instability in peripheral lymphocytes and risk of human gliomas. Carcinogenesis. 1999;20(5):811–5. [PubMed]

165. Endoh K, Leung FW. Effects of smoking and nicotine on the gastric mucosa: a review of clinical and experimental evidence. Gastroenterology. 1994;107(3):864–78. [PubMed]

166. Engeland A, Andersen A, Haldorsen T, Tretli S. Smoking habits and risk of cancers other than lung cancer: 28 years’ follow-up of 26,000 Norwegian men and women. Cancer Causes and Control. 1996;7(5):497–506. [PubMed]

167. Engeland A, Bjorge T, Haldorsen T, Tretli S. Use of multiple primary cancers to indicate associations between smoking and cancer incidence: an analysis of 500,000 cancer cases diagnosed in Norway during 1953–93. International Journal of Cancer. 1997;70(4):401–7. [PubMed]

168. Enger SM, Ross RK, Paganini-Hill A, Longnecker MP, Bernstein L. Alcohol consumption and breast cancer oestrogen and progesterone receptor status. British Journal of Cancer. 1999;79(7/8):1308–14. [PMC free article] [PubMed]

169. Esteller M, Sanchez-Cespedes M, Rosell R, Sidransky D, Baylin SB, Herman JG. Detection of aberrant promoter hypermethylation of tumor suppressor genes in serum DNA from non-small cell lung cancer patients. Cancer Research. 1999;59(1):67–70. [PubMed]

170. EUROGAST Study Group. Epidemiology of, and risk factors for, Helicobacter pylori infection among 3194 asymptomatic subjects in 17 populations. Gut. 1993;34(12):1672–6. [PMC free article] [PubMed]

171. Ewertz M. Smoking and breast cancer risk in Denmark. Cancer Causes and Control. 1990;1(1):31–7. [PubMed]

172. Ewertz M. Alcohol consumption and breast cancer risk in Denmark. Cancer Causes and Control. 1991;2(4):247–52. [PubMed]

173. Ewertz M. Re: “Breast cancer and cigarette smoking: a hypothesis” [letter] American Journal of Epidemiology. 1992;135(10):1185.[PubMed]

174. Falk RT, Pickle LW, Brown LM, Mason TJ, Buffler PA, Fraumeni JF Jr. Effect of smoking and alcohol consumption on laryngeal cancer risk in coastal Texas. Cancer Research. 1989;49(14):4024–9. [PubMed]

175. Falk RT, Pickle LW, Fontham ET, Correa P, Fraumeni JF Jr. Life-style risk factors for pancreatic cancer in Louisiana: a case-control study. American Journal of Epidemiology. 1988;128(2):324–36. [PubMed]

176. Falter B, Kutzer C, Richter E. Biomonitoring of hemoglobin adducts: aromatic amines and tobacco-specific nitrosamines. Clinical and Investigative Medicine. 1994;72(5):364–71. [PubMed]

177. Farber E. The multistep nature of cancer development. Cancer Research. 1984;44(10):4217–23. [PubMed]

178. Farrow DC, Davis S. Risk of pancreatic cancer in relation to medical history and the use of tobacco, alcohol and coffee. International Journal of Cancer. 1990;45(5):816–20. [PubMed]

179. Fearon ER, Vogelstein B. A genetic model for colorectal tumorigenesis. Cell. 1990;61(5):759–67. [PubMed]

180. Feigelson HS, Calle EE, Robertson AS, Wingo PA, Thun MJ. Alcohol consumption increases the risk of fatal breast cancer (United States). Cancer Causes and Control. 2001;12(10):895–902. [PubMed]

181. Ferraroni M, Decarli A, Franceschi S, La Vecchia C. Alcohol consumption and risk of breast cancer: a multicentre Italian case-control study. European Journal of Cancer. 1998;34(9):1403–9. [PubMed]

182. Ferraroni M, Gerber M, Decarli A, Richardson S, Marubini E, Crastes de Paulet P, Crastes de Paulet A, Pujol H. HDL-cholesterol and breast cancer: a joint study in Northern Italy and Southern France. International Journal of Epidemiology. 1993;22(5):772–80. [PubMed]

183. Ferraroni M, Negri E, La Vecchia C, D’Avanzo B, Franceschi S. Socioeconomic indicators, tobacco and alcohol in the aetiology of digestive tract neoplasms. International Journal of Epidemiology. 1989;18(3):556–62. [PubMed]

184. Ferry JD, McLean BK, Nikitovitch-Winer MB. Tobacco-smoke inhalation delays suckling-induced prolactin release in the rat (38291). Proceeding of the Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine. 1974;147(1):110–3. [PubMed]

185. Field AE, Colditz GA, Willett WC, Longcope C, McKinlay JB. The relation of smoking, age, relative weight, and dietary intake to serum adrenal steroids, sex hormones, and sex hormone-binding globulin in middle-aged men. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism. 1994;79(5):1310–6. [PubMed]

186. Field NA, Baptiste MS, Nasca PC, Metzger BB. Cigarette smoking and breast cancer. International Journal of Epidemiology. 1992;21(5):842–8.[PubMed]

187. Filippazzo MG, Aragona E, Cottone M, Dardanoni G, Lanzarone F, Marenghini A, Patti C, Sciarrino E, Simonetti R, Tine F, Pagliaro L. Assessment of some risk factors for hepatocellular carcinoma: a case-control study. Statistics in Medicine. 1985;4(3):345–51. [PubMed]

188. Fincham SM, Hill GB, Hanson J, Wijayasinghe C. Epidemiology of prostatic cancer: a case-control study. Prostate. 1990;17(3):189–206.[PubMed]

189. Flanders WD, Rothman KJ. Interaction of alcohol and tobacco in laryngeal cancer. American Journal of Epidemiology. 1982;115(3):371–9. [PubMed]

190. Flodin U, Fredriksson M, Persson B, Axelson O. Chronic lymphatic leukaemia and engine exhausts, fresh wood, and DDT: a case-referent study. British Journal of Industrial Medicine. 1988;45(1):33–8. [PMC free article] [PubMed]

191. Foiles PG, Miglietta LM, Quart AM, Quart E, Kabat GC, Hecht SS. Evaluation of 32P-postlabeling analysis of DNA from exfoliated oral mucosa cells as a means of monitoring exposure of the oral cavity to genotoxic agents. Carcinogenesis. 1989;10(8):1429–34. [PubMed]

192. Fox JG, Wang TC. Overview of Helicobacter pylori. In: Goedert JJ, editor. Infectious Causes of Cancer: Targets for Intervention. Totowa (NJ): Humana Press; 2000. pp. 371–88.

193. Franceschi S, Barra S, La Vecchia C, Bidoli E, Negri E, Talamini R. Risk factors for cancer of the tongue and the mouth: a case-control study from northern Italy. Cancer. 1992;70(9):2227–33. [PubMed]

194. Franceschi S, Talamini R, Barra S, Baron AE, Negri E, Bidoli E, Serraino D, La Vecchia C. Smoking and drinking in relation to cancers of the oral cavity, pharynx, larynx, and esophagus in northern Italy. Cancer Research. 1990;50(20):6502–7. [PubMed]

195. Franks AL, Lee NC, Kendrick JS, Rubin GL, Layde PM. Cigarette smoking and the risk of epithelial ovarian cancer. American Journal of Epidemiology. 1987;126(1):112–7. [PubMed]

196. Freudenheim JL, Graham S, Byers TE, Marshall JR, Haughey BP, Swanson MK, Wilkinson G. Diet, smoking, and alcohol in cancer of the larynx: a case-control study. Nutrition and Cancer. 1992;17(1):33–45.[PubMed]

197. Friedenreich CM, Howe GR, Miller AB, Jain MG. A cohort study of alcohol consumption and risk of breast cancer. American Journal of Epidemiology. 1993;137(5):512–20. [PubMed]

198. Friedman GD. Cigarette smoking, leukemia, and multiple myeloma. Annals of Epidemiology. 1993;3(4):425–8. [PubMed]

199. Friedman AJ, Ravnikar VA, Barbieri RL. Serum steroid hormone profiles in postmenopausal smokers and nonsmokers. Fertility and Sterility. 1987;47(3):398–401. [PubMed]

200. Fuchs CS, Colditz GA, Stampfer MJ, Giovannucci EL, Hunter DJ, Rimm EB, Willett WC, Speizer FE. A prospective study of cigarette smoking and the risk of pancreatic cancer. Archives of Internal Medicine. 1996;156(19):2255–60. [PubMed]

201. Fuchs CS, Mayer RJ. Gastric carcinoma. New England Journal of Medicine. 1995;333(1):32–41. [PubMed]

202. Fukushima S, Imaida K, Sakata T, Okamura T, Shibata M, Ito N. Promoting effects of sodium L-ascorbate on two-stage urinary bladder carcinogenesis in rats. Cancer Research. 1983;43(9):4454–7. [PubMed]

203. Fukuyama Y, Mitsudomi T, Sugio K, Ishida T, Akazawa K, Sugimachi K. K-ras and p53 mutations are an independent unfavorable prognostic indicator in patients with non-small-cell lung cancer. British Journal of Cancer. 1997;75(8):1125–30. [PMC free article] [PubMed]

204. Furth J, Kahn MC. The transmission of leukemia of mice with a single cell. American Journal of Cancer. 1937;31:276–82.

205. Galipeau PC, Prevo LJ, Sanchez CA, Longton GM, Reid BJ. Clonal expansion and loss of heterozygosity at chromosomes 9p and 17p in premalignant esophageal (Barrett’s) tissue. Journal of the National Cancer Institute. 1999;91(24):2087–95. [PMC free article] [PubMed]

206. Gammon MD, Schoenberg JB, Ahsan H, Risch HA, Vaughan TL, Chow W-H, Rotterdam H, West AB, Dubrow R, Stanford JL, Mayne ST, Farrow DC, Niwa S, Blot WJ, Fraumeni JF Jr. Tobacco, alcohol, and socioeconomic status and adenocarcinomas of the esophagus and gastric cardia. Journal of the National Cancer Institute. 1997;89(17):1277–84. [PubMed]

207. Gammon MD, Schoenberg JB, Teitelbaum SL, Brinton LA, Potischman N, Swanson CA, Brogan DL, Coates RJ, Malone KE, Stanford JL. Cigarette smoking and breast cancer risk among young women (United States). Cancer Causes and Control. 1998;9(6):583–90. [PubMed]

208. Gann PH, Hennekens CH, Ma J, Longcope C, Stampfer MJ. Prospective study of sex hormone levels and risk of prostate cancer. Journal of the National Cancer Institute. 1996;88(16):1118–26.[PubMed]

209. Gann PH, Hennekens CH, Sacks FM, Grodstein F, Giovannucci EL, Stampfer MJ. Prospective study of plasma fatty acids and risk of prostate cancer. Journal of the National Cancer Institute. 1994;86(4):281–6. [PubMed]

210. Gao Y-T, McLaughlin JK, Blot WJ, Ji B-T, Benichou J, Dai Q, Fraumeni JF Jr. Risk factors for esophageal cancer in Shanghai, China. I: Role of cigarette smoking and alcohol drinking. International Journal of Cancer. 1994;58(2):192–6. [PubMed]

211. Gao YT, Shu XO, Dai Q, Potter JD, Brinton LA, Wen W, Sellers TA, Kushi LH, Ruan Z, Bostick RM, Jin F, Zheng W. Association of menstrual and reproductive factors with breast cancer risk: results from the Shanghai Breast Cancer Study. International Journal of Cancer. 2000;87(2):295–300. [PubMed]

212. Gapstur SM, Potter JD, Sellers TA, Folsom AR. Increased risk of breast cancer with alcohol consumption in postmenopausal women. American Journal of Epidemiology. 1992;136(10):1221–31. [PubMed]

213. Garfinkel L, Boffetta P. Association between smoking and leukemia in two American Cancer Society prospective studies. Cancer. 1990;65(10):2356–60. [PubMed]

214. Garner RC, Cuzick J, Jenkins D, Phillips DH, Hewer A, King MM, Routledge MN. Linear relationship between DNA adducts in human lung and cigarette smoking. IARC Scientific Publications. 1990;104:421–6. [PubMed]

215. Garte SJ, Kneip TJ. Metabolism. In: Kneip TJ, Crable JV, editors. Methods for Biological Monitoring. Washington: American Public Health Association; 1988. pp. 15–26.

216. Garte S, Zocchetti C, Taioli E. Gene-environment interactions in the application of biomarkers of cancer susceptibility in epidemiology. In: Toniolo P, Boffetta P, Shuker DEG, Rothman N, Hulka B, Pearce N, editors. Application of Biomarkers in Cancer Epidemiology. Lyon: International Agency for Research on Cancer; 1997. pp. 251–64.

217. Gayther SA, Mangion J, Russell P, Seal S, Barfoot R, Ponder BAJ, Stratton MR, Easton D. Variations of risks of breast and ovarian cancer associated with different germline mutations of the BRCA2 gene

[letter]

 Nature Genetics. 1997;15(1):103–5. [PubMed]

218. Gertig DM, Stampfer M, Haiman C, Hennekens CH, Kelsey K, Hunter DJ. Glutathione S-transferase GSTM1 and GSTT1 polymorphisms and colorectal cancer risk: a prospective study. Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers and Prevention. 1998;7(11):1001–5. [PubMed]

219. Ghadirian P, Simard A, Baillargeon J. Tobacco, alcohol, and coffee and cancer of the pancreas: a population-based, case-control study in Quebec, Canada. Cancer. 1991;67(10):2664–70. [PubMed]

220. Giles GG, Hill DJ, Silver B. The lung cancer epidemic in Australia, 1910 to 1989. Australian Journal of Public Health. 1991;15(3):245–7.[PubMed]

221. Gilliland FD, Samet JM. Lung cancer. Cancer Surveys. 1994;19:175–95. [PubMed]

222. Gillis CR, Hole DJ, Boyle P. Cigarette smoking and male lung cancer in an area of very high incidence. I: report of a case-control study in the West of Scotland. Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health. 1988;42(1):38–43. [PMC free article] [PubMed]

223. Giovannucci E. Tomatoes, tomato-based products, lycopene, and cancer: review of the epidemiologic literature. Journal of the National Cancer Institute. 1999;91(4):317–31. [PubMed]

224. Giovannucci E. An updated review of the epidemiological evidence that cigarette smoking increases risk of colorectal cancer. Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers and Prevention. 2001;20(7):725–31.[PubMed]

225. Giovannucci E, Ascherio A, Rimm EB, Stampfer MJ, Colditz GA, Willett WC. Intake of carotenoids and retinol in relation to risk of prostate cancer. Journal of the National Cancer Institute. 1995;87(23):1767–76. [PubMed]

226. Giovannucci E, Colditz GA, Stampfer MJ, Hunter D, Rosner BA, Willett WC, Speizer FE. A prospective study of cigarette smoking and risk of colorectal adenoma and colorectal cancer in U.S. women. Journal of the National Cancer Institute. 1994a;86(3):192–9. [PubMed]

227. Giovannucci E, Martínez ME. Tobacco, colorectal cancer, and adenomas: a review of the evidence. Journal of the National Cancer Institute. 1996;88(23):1717–30. [PubMed]

228. Giovannucci E, Rimm EB, Ascherio A, Colditz GA, Spiegelman D, Stampfer MJ, Willett WC. Smoking and risk of total and fatal prostate cancer in United States health professionals. Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers and Prevention. 1999;8(4 Pt 1):277–82. [PubMed]

229. Giovannucci E, Rimm EB, Stampfer MJ, Colditz GA, Ascherio A, Kearney J, Willett WC. A prospective study of cigarette smoking and risk of colorectal adenoma and colorectal cancer in U.S. men. Journal of the National Cancer Institute. 1994b;86(3):183–91. [PubMed]

230. Giovannucci E, Stampfer MJ, Krithivas K, Brown M, Brufsky A, Talcott J, Hennekens CH, Kantoff PW. The CAG repeat within the androgen receptor gene and its relationship to prostate cancer. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 1997;94(7):3320–3. [PMC free article] [PubMed]

231. Giovino GA, Schooley MW, Zhu B-P, Chrismon JH, Tomar SL, Peddicord JP, Merritt RK, Husten CG, Eriksen MP. Surveillance for selected tobacco-use behaviors—United States, 1900–1994. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report. 1994;43(SS-3):1–43. [PubMed]

232. Gocze PM, Porpaczy Z, Freeman DA. Effect of alkaloids in cigarette smoke on human granulosa cell progesterone synthesis and cell viability. Gynecological Endocrinology. 1996;10(4):223–8. [PubMed]

233. Goddard AF, Spiller RC. Helicobacter pylori eradication in clinical practice: one-week low-dose triple therapy is preferable to classical bismuth based triple therapy. Alimentary Pharmacology and Therapeutics. 1996;10(6):1009–13. [PubMed]

234. Goh KL. Prevalence of and risk factors for Helicobacter pyloriinfection in a multi-racial dyspeptic Malaysian population undergoing endoscopy. Journal of Gastroenterology and Hepatology. 1997;12(6):S29–S35. [PubMed]

235. Golematis B, Tzardis P, Hatzikostas P, Papadimitriou K, Haritopoulos N. Changing pattern of distribution of carcinoma of the stomach. British Journal of Surgery. 1990;77(1):63–4. [PubMed]

236. Gong C, Mera R, Bravo JC, Ruiz B, Diaz-Escamilla R, Fontham ETH, Correa P, Hunt JD. KRAS mutations predict progression of preneoplastic gastric lesions. Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers and Prevention. 1999;8(2):167–71. [PubMed]

237. Grady D, Ernster VL. Endometrial cancer. In: Schottenfeld D, Fraumeni JF Jr, editors. Cancer Epidemiology and Prevention. 2nd ed. New York: Oxford University Press; 1996. pp. 1058–88.

238. Graham DY, Malaty HM, Evans DG, Evans DJ Jr, Klein PD, Adam E. Epidemiology of Helicobacter pylori in an asymptomatic population in the United States: effect of age, race, and socioeconomic status. Gastroenterology. 1991;100(6):1495–501. [PubMed]

239. Grant DM, Hughes NC, Janezic SA, Goodfellow GH, Chen HJ, Gaedigk A, Yu VL, Grewal R. Human acetyltransferase polymorphisms. Mutation Research. 1997;376(1–2):61–70. [PubMed]

240. Gray MR, Donnelly RJ, Kingsnorth AN. The role of smoking and alcohol in metaplasia and cancer risk in Barrett’s columnar lined oesophagus. Gut. 1993;34(6):727–31. [PMC free article] [PubMed]

241. Green A, Purdie D, Bain C, Siskind V, Webb PM. Cigarette smoking and risk of epithelial ovarian cancer (Australia). Cancer Causes and Control. 2001;12(8):713–9. [PubMed]

242. Greenblatt MS, Bennett WP, Hollstein M, Harris CC. Mutations in the p53 tumor suppressor gene: clues to cancer etiology and molecular pathogenesis. Cancer Research. 1994;54(18):4855–78. [PubMed]

243. Greenlee RT, Murray T, Bolden S, Wingo PA. Cancer statistics, 2000. CA: A Cancer Journal for Clinicians. 2000;50(1):7–33. [PubMed]

244. Grönberg H, Damber JE, Damber L, Jonsson H. Re: Prostate cancer mortality in patients surviving more than 10 years after diagnosis [comment] Journal of Urology. 1996;156(5):1785–6. [PubMed]

245. Guenel P, Chastang JF, Luce D, Leclerc A, Brugere J. A study of the interaction of alcohol drinking and tobacco smoking among French cases of laryngeal cancer. Journal of Epidemiology in Community Health. 1988;42(4):350–4. [PMC free article] [PubMed]

246. Hainaut P, Hernandez T, Robinson A, Rodriguez-Tome P, Flores T, Hollstein M, Harris CC, Montesano R. IARC Database of p53 gene mutations in human tumors and cell lines: updated compilation, revised formats and new visualisation tools. Nucleic Acids Research. 1998;26(1):205–13. [PMC free article] [PubMed]

247. Hakulinen T, Pukkala E, Puska P, Tuomilehto J, Vartiainen E. Various measures of smoking as predictors of cancer of different types in two Finnish cohorts. In: Colditz GA, editor. Proceedings of the Consensus Conference on Smoking and Prostate Cancer; Brisbane. February 12–14, 1996; Brisbane (Australia): Repatriation Medical Authority; 1997. pp. 57–70.

248. Hakura A, Tsutsui Y, Sonoda J, Kai J, Imade T, Shimada M, Sugihara Y, Mikami T. Comparison between in vivo mutagenicity and carcinogenicity in multiple organs by benzo[a]pyrene in the lacZ transgenic mouse (MutaTM Mouse). Mutation Research. 1998;398(1–2):123–30. [PubMed]

249. Hakura A, Tsutsui Y, Sonoda J, Mikami T, Tsukidate K, Sagami F, Kerns WD. Multiple organ mutation in the lac Z transgenic mouse (MutaTM Mouse) 6 months after oral treatment (5 days) with benzo[a]pyrene. Mutation Research. 1999;426(1):71–7. [PubMed]

250. Hammond EC. Smoking in relation to the death rates of one million men and women. In: Haenszel W, editor. Epidemiological Approaches to the Study of Cancer and Other Chronic Diseases. National Cancer Institute Monograph No 19. Bethesda (MD): U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Public Health Service, National Cancer Institute; 1966. pp. 127–204.

251. Hammond EC, Garfinkel L, Seidman H, Lew EA. “Tar” and nicotine content of cigarette smoke in relation to death rates” Environmental Research. 1976;12(3):263–74. [PubMed]

252. Hanahan D, Weinberg RA. The hallmarks of cancer. Cell. 2000;100(1):57–70. [PubMed]

253. Hankinson SE, Colditz GA, Hunter DJ, Spencer TL, Rosner B, Stampfer MJ. A quantitative assessment of oral contraceptive use and risk of ovarian cancer. Obstetrics and Gynecology. 1992;80(4):708–14.[PubMed]

254. Hansen S, Melby KK, Aase S, Jellum E, Vollset SE. Helicobacter pylori infection and risk of cardia cancer and non-cardia gastric cancer: a nested case-control study. Scandinavian Journal of Gastroenterology. 1999;34(4):353–60. [PubMed]

255. Hansson L-E, Baron J, Nyrén O, Bergström R, Wolk A, Adami H-O. Tobacco, alcohol and the risk of gastric cancer: a population-based case-control study in Sweden. International Journal of Cancer. 1994;57(1):26–31. [PubMed]

256. Hardell L, Bengtsson NO, Jonsson U, Eriksson S, Larsson LG. Aetiological aspects on primary liver cancer with special regard to alcohol, organic solvents and acute intermitters porphyria—an epidemiological investigation. British Journal of Cancer. 1984;50(3):389–97. [PMC free article] [PubMed]

257. Harlow E. An introduction to the puzzle. Cold Spring Harbor Symposia on Quantitative Biology. 1994;59:709–23.

258. Harnack LJ, Anderson KE, Zheng W, Folsom AR, Sellers TA, Kushi LH. Smoking, alcohol, coffee, and tea intake and incidence of cancer of the exocrine pancreas: the Iowa Women’s Health Study. Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers and Prevention. 1997;6(12):1081–6.[PubMed]

259. Harvey EB, Schairer C, Brinton LA, Hoover RN, Fraumeni JF Jr. Alcohol consumption and breast cancer. Journal of the National Cancer Institute. 1987;78(4):657–61. [PubMed]

260. Hayashi S, Watanabe J, Nakachi K, Kawajiri K. Genetic linkage of lung cancer-associated MspI polymorphisms with amino acid replacement in the heme binding region of the human cytochrome P450IA1 gene. Journal of Biochemistry. 1991;110(3):407–11. [PubMed]

261. Hayes RB, Pottern LM, Swanson GM, Liff JM, Schoenberg JB, Greenberg RS, Schwartz AG, Brown LM, Silverman DT, Hoover RN. Tobacco use and prostate cancer in blacks and whites in the United States. Cancer Causes and Control. 1994;5(3):221–6. [PubMed]

262. Heath CW Jr. Cigarette smoking and hematopoietic cancer. Journal of the National Cancer Institute. 1990;82(23):1800–1. [PubMed]

263. Hecht SS. Tobacco smoke carcinogens and lung cancer. Journal of the National Cancer Institute. 1999;91(14):1194–210. [PubMed]

264. Hecht SS, Carmella SG, Murphy SE, Akerkar S, Brunnemann KD, Hoffman D. A tobacco-specific lung carcinogen in the urine of men exposed to cigarette smoke. New England Journal of Medicine. 1993;329(21):1543–6. [PubMed]

265. Hecht SS, Hoffmann D. Tobacco-specific nitrosamines; an important group of carcinogens in tobacco and tobacco smoke. Carcinogenesis. 1988;9(6):875–84. [PubMed]

266. Hegmann KT, Fraser AM, Keaney RP, Moser SE, Nilasena DS, Sedlars M, Higham-Gren L, Lyon JL. The effect of age at smoking initiation on lung cancer risk. Epidemiology. 1993;4(5):444–8. [PubMed]

267. Heikkilä R, Aho K, Heliövaara M, Hakama M, Marniemi J, Reunanen A, Knekt P. Serum testosterone and sex hormone-binding globulin concentrations and the risk of prostate carcinoma: a longitudinal study. Cancer. 1999;86(2):312–5. [PubMed]

268. Heineman EF, Zahm SH, McLaughlin JK, Vaught JB. Increased risk of colorectal cancer among smokers: results of a 26-year follow-up of US veterans and a review. International Journal of Cancer. 1995;59(6):728–38. [PubMed]

269. Hellberg D, Nilsson S. Smoking and cancer of the ovary. New England Journal of Medicine. 1988;318(12):782–3. [PubMed]

270. Herity B, Moriarty M, Daly L, Dunn J, Bourke GJ. The role of tobacco and alcohol in the aetiology of lung and larynx cancer. British Journal of Cancer. 1982;46(6):961–4. [PMC free article] [PubMed]

271. Heuch I, Kvale G, Jacobsen BK, Bjelke E. Use of alcohol, tobacco and coffee, and risk of pancreatic cancer. British Journal of Cancer. 1983;48(5):637–43. [PMC free article] [PubMed]

272. Hiatt RA, Armstrong MA, Klatsky AL, Sidney S. Alcohol consumption, smoking, and other risk factors and prostate cancer in a large health plan cohort in California (United States). Cancer Causes and Control. 1994;5(1):66–72. [PubMed]

273. Hiatt RA, Bawol RD. Alcoholic beverage consumption and breast cancer incidence. American Journal of Epidemiology. 1984;120(5):676–83. [PubMed]

274. Hiatt RA, Fireman BH. Smoking, menopause and breast cancer. Journal of the National Cancer Institute. 1986;76(5):833–8. [PubMed]

275. Hiatt RA, Klatsky AL, Armstrong MA. Alcohol consumption and the risk of breast cancer in a prepaid health plan. Cancer Research. 1988;48(8):2284–7. [PubMed]

276. Higenbottam T, Shipley MJ, Rose G. Cigarettes, lung cancer, and coronary heart disease: the effects of inhalation and tar yield. Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health. 1982;36(2):113–7. [PMC free article] [PubMed]

277. Hildesheim A, Herrero R, Castle PE, Wacholder S, Bratti MC, Sherman ME, Lorincz AT, Burk RD, Morales J, Rodriguez AC, Helgesen K, Alfaro M, Hutchinson M, Balmaceda I, Greenberg M, Schiffman M. HPV co-factors related to the development of cervical cancer: results from a population-based study in Costa Rica. British Journal of Cancer. 2001;84(9):1219–26. [PMC free article] [PubMed]

278. Hirayama T.  Life-Style and Mortality. A Large-Scale Census-Based Cohort Study in Japan. Contributions to Epidemiology and Statistics.Vol. 6. New York: Karger; 1990. 

279. Hirvonen A. Genetic factors in individual responses to environmental exposures. Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine. 1995;37(1):37–43. [PubMed]

280. Hirvonen A, Husgafvel-Pursiainen K, Anttila S, Vainio H. The GSTM1null genotype as a potential risk modifier for squamous cell carcinoma of the lung. Carcinogenesis. 1993;14(7):1479–81. [PubMed]

281. Hochberg F, Toniolo P, Cole P, Salcman M. Nonoccupational risk indicators of glioblastoma in adults. Journal of Neuro-Oncology. 1990;8(1):55–60. [PubMed]

282. Hoff G, Vatn MH, Larsen S. Relationship between tobacco smoking and colorectal polyps. Scandinavian Journal of Gastroenterology. 1987;22(1):13–6. [PubMed]

283. Hoffmann D, Adams JD. Carcinogenic tobacco-specific N-nitrosamines in snuff and in the saliva of snuff dippers. Cancer Research. 1981;41(11 Pt 1):4305–8. [PubMed]

284. Hoffmann D, Hoffmann I. The changing cigarette, 1950–1995. Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health. 1997;50(4):307–64.[PubMed]

285. Hoffmann D, Hoffmann I.  National Cancer Institute. Risks Associated with Smoking Cigarettes with Low Machine-Measured Yields of Tar and Nicotine. Smoking and Tobacco Control Monograph No 13.Bethesda (MD): U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, National Institutes of Health, National Cancer Institute; 2001. The changing cigarette: chemical studies and bioassays; pp. 159–91. NIH Publication No. 02–5074.

286. Hollstein M, Sidransky D, Vogelstein B, Harris CC. p53 Mutations in human cancers. Science. 1991;253(5015):49–53. [PubMed]

287. Holly EA, Petrakis NL, Friend NF, Sarles DL, Lee RE, Flander LB. Mutagenic mucus in the cervix of smokers. Journal of the National Cancer Institute. 1986;76(6):983–6. [PubMed]

288. Honda GD, Bernstein L, Ross RK, Greenland S, Gerkins V, Henderson BE. Vasectomy, cigarette smoking, and age at first sexual intercourse as risk factors for prostate cancer in middle-aged men. British Journal of Cancer. 1988;57(3):326–31. [PMC free article] [PubMed]

289. Honjo S, Kono S, Shinchi K, Imanishi K, Hirohata T. Cigarette smoking, alcohol use and adenomatous polyps of the sigmoid colon. Japanese Journal of Cancer Research. 1992;83(8):806–11. [PMC free article] [PubMed]

290. Hopper JL, Chenevix-Trench G, Jolley DJ, Dite GS, Jenkins MA, Venter DJ, McCredie MR, Giles GG. Design and analysis issues in a population-based, case-control-family study of the genetic epidemiology of breast cancer, and the Co-operative Family Registry for Breast Cancer Families (CFRBCS). Journal of the National Cancer Institute Monographs. 1999;26:95–100. [PubMed]

291. Horie A, Kohchi S, Kuratsune M. Carcinogenesis in the esophagus. II: experimental production of esophageal cancer by administration of ethanolic solution of carcinogens. Japanese Journal of Cancer Research. 1965;56(5):429–41. [PubMed]

292. Hoshiyama Y, Sasaba T. A case-control study of stomach cancer and its relation to diet, cigarettes, and alcohol consumption in Saitama Prefecture, Japan. Cancer Causes and Control. 1992;3(5):441–8.[PubMed]

293. Howe GR, Jain M, Burch JD, Miller AB. Cigarette smoking and cancer of the pancreas: evidence from a population-based case-control study in Toronto, Canada. International Journal of Cancer. 1991;47(3):323–8.[PubMed]

294. Hruban RH, van Mansfeld AD, Offerhaus GJ, van Weering DH, Allison DC, Goodman SN, Kensler TW, Bose KK, Cameron JL, Bos JL. K-ras oncogene activation in adenocarcinoma of the human pancreas: a study of 82 carcinomas using a combination of mutant-enriched polymerase chain reaction analysis and allele-specific oligonucleotide hybridization. American Journal of Pathology. 1993;143(2):545–54.[PMC free article] [PubMed]

295. Hrubec Z, McLaughlin JK. Former cigarette smoking and mortality among US veterans: a 26-year followup, 1954 to 1980. In: Burns MD, Garfinkel L, Samet JM, editors. Changes in Cigarette-Related Disease Risks and Their Implication for Prevention and Control. Smoking and Tobacco Control Monograph No 8. Bethesda (MD): U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, National Institutes of Health, National Cancer Institute; 1997. pp. 501–30. NIH Publication No. 97–4213.

296. Hsing AW, Comstock GW. Serological precursors of cancer: serum hormones and risk of subsequent prostate cancer. Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers and Prevention. 1993;2(1):27–32. [PubMed]

297. Hsing AW, McLaughlin JK, Chow W-H, Schuman LM, Co Chien HT, Gridley G, Bjelke E, Wacholder S, Blot WJ. Risk factors for colorectal cancer in a prospective study among U.S. white men. International Journal of Cancer. 1998;77(4):549–53. [PubMed]

298. Hsing AW, McLaughlin JK, Hrubec Z, Blot WJ, Fraumeni JF Jr. Cigarette smoking and liver cancer among US veterans. Cancer Causes and Control. 1990a;1(3):217–21. [PubMed]

299. Hsing AW, McLaughlin JK, Hrubec Z, Blot WJ, Fraumeni JF Jr. Tobacco use and prostate cancer: 26-year follow-up of US veterans. American Journal of Epidemiology. 1991;133(5):437–41. [PubMed]

300. Hsing AW, McLaughlin JK, Schuman LM, Bjelke E, Gridley G, Wacholder S, Co-Chien HT, Blot WJ. Diet, tobacco use, and fatal prostate cancer: results from the Lutheran Brotherhood Cohort Study. Cancer Research. 1990b;50(21):6836–40. [PubMed]

301. Hsu IC, Metcalf RA, Sun T, Welsh JA, Wang NJ, Harris CC. Mutational hotspot in the p53 gene in human hepatocellular carcinomas. Nature. 1991;350(6317):427–8. [PubMed]

302. Hu N, Roth MJ, Polymeropolous M, Tang Z-Z, Emmert-Buck MR, Wang Q-H, Goldstein AM, Feng S-S, Dawsey SM, Ding T, Zhuang Z-P, Han X-Y, Ried T, Giffen C, Taylor PR. Identification of novel regions of allelic loss from a genomewide scan of esophageal squamous-cell carcinoma in a high-risk Chinese population. Genes, Chromosomes, & Cancer. 2000;27(3):217–28. [PubMed]

303. Hughes NC, Janezic SA, McQueen KL, Jewett MAS, Castranio T, Bell DA, Grant DM. Identification and characterization of variant alleles of human acetyltransferase NAT1 with defective functions using p-aminosalicylate as an in-vivo and in-vitro probe. Pharmacogenetics. 1998;8(1):55–66. [PubMed]

304. Hung J, Kishimoto Y, Sugio K, Virmani A, McIntire DD, Minna JD, Gazdar AF. Allele-specific chromosome 3p deletions occur at an early stage in the pathogenesis of lung carcinoma. Journal of the American Medical Association. 1995;273(7):558–63. [PubMed]

305. Hunter DJ, Hankinson SE, Hough H, Gertig DM, Garcia-Closas M, Spiegelman D, Manson JAE, Colditz GA, Willett WC, Speizer FE, Kelsey K. A prospective study of NAT2 acetylation genotype, cigarette smoking, and risk of breast cancer. Carcinogenesis. 1997;18(11):2127–32. [PubMed]

306. Hurley SF, McNeil JJ, Donnan GA, Forbes A, Salzberg M, Giles GG. Tobacco smoking and alcohol consumption as risk factors for glioma: a case-control study in Melbourne, Australia. Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health. 1996;50(4):442–6. [PMC free article] [PubMed]

307. Hussain F, Aziz H, Macchia R, Avitable M, Rotman M. High grade adenocarcinoma of prostate in smokers of ethnic minority groups and Caribbean Island immigrants. International Journal of Radiation Oncology, Biology, Physics. 1992;24(3):451–61. [PubMed]

308. Hussain SP, Harris CC. Molecular epidemiology of human cancer: contribution of mutation spectra studies of tumor suppressor genes. Cancer Research. 1998;58(18):4023–37. [PubMed]

309. Idle JR, Armstrong M, Boddy AV, Boustead C, Cholerton S, Cooper J, Daly AK, Ellis J, Gregory W, Hadidi H, Höfer C, Holt J, Leathart J, McCracken N, Monkman SC, Painter JE, Taber H, Walker D, Yule M. The pharmacogenetics of chemical carcinogenesis. Pharmacogenetics. 1992;2(6):246–58. [PubMed]

310. Idris AM, Nair J, Friesen M, Ohshima H, Brouet I, Faustman EM, Bartsch H. Carcinogenic tobacco-specific nitrosamines are present at unusually high levels in the saliva of oral snuff users in Sudan. Carcinogenesis. 1992;13(6):1001–5. [PubMed]

311. Inoue H, Kiyohara C, Marugame T, Shinomiya S, Tsuji E, Handa K, Hayabuchi H, Onuma K, Hamada H, Koga H, Dono S. Cigarette smoking, CYP1A1 MspI and GSTM1 genotypes, and colorectal adenomas. Cancer Research. 2000;60(14):3749–52. [PubMed]

312. Inoue M, Tajima K, Yamamura Y, Hamajima N, Hirose K, Nakamura S, Kodera Y, Kito T, Tominaga S. Influence of habitual smoking on gastric cancer by histologic subtype. International Journal of Cancer. 1999;81(1):39–43. [PubMed]

313. Institute of Medicine.  Clearing the Smoke: Assessing the Science Base for Tobacco Harm Reduction. Washington: National Academy Press; 2001. [PubMed]

314. International Agency for Research on Cancer.  IARC Monographs on the Evaluation of the Carcinogenic Risk of Chemicals to Humans: Tobacco Smoking. Vol. 38. Lyon (France): International Agency for Research on Cancer; 1986. 

315. International Agency for Research on Cancer.  IARC Monographs on the Evaluation of the Carcinogenic Risk of Chemicals to Humans: Silica and Some Silicates. Vol. 42. Lyon (France): International Agency for Research on Cancer; 1987. 

316. International Agency for Research on Cancer.  IARC Monographs on the Evaluation of the Carcinogenic Risks to Humans: Alcohol Drinking.Vol. 44. Lyon (France): International Agency for Research on Cancer; 1988. pp. 194–207.

317. International Agency for Research on Cancer.  Cancer Incidence in Five Continents. VI. Lyon (France): International Agency for Research on Cancer; 1992. 

318. International Agency for Research on Cancer. IARC Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans: Tobacco Smoke and Involuntary Smoking. Lyon (France): International Agency for Research on Cancer; 2002. [accessed: December 19, 2002]. http://monographs?.iarc?.fr/htdocs/monographs?/vol83/02-involuntary.html.

319. International Agency for Research on Cancer. Information on cancer incidence, mortality, and survival. [accessed: July 18, 2003]. http://www-dep?.iarc.fr/dataava/infodata?.htm.

320. Isaksson B, Jonsson F, Pedersen NL, Larsson J, Feychting M, Permert J. Lifestyle factors and pancreatic cancer risk: a cohort study from the Swedish Twin Registry. International Journal of Cancer. 2002;98(3):480–2. [PubMed]

321. Ishibe N, Hankinson SE, Colditz GA, Spiegelman D, Willett WC, Speizer FE, Kelsey KT, Hunter DJ. Cigarette smoking, cytochrome P450 1A1 polymorphisms, and breast cancer risk in the Nurses’ Health Study. Cancer Research. 1998;58(4):667–71. [PubMed]

322. Ishibe N, Wiencke JK, Zuo ZF, McMillan A, Spitz M, Kelsey KT. Susceptibility to lung cancer in light smokers associated with CYP1A1 polymorphisms in Mexican- and African-Americans. Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers and Prevention. 1997;6(12):1075–80.[PubMed]

323. Jacobson JS, Neugut AI, Murray T, Garbowski GC, Forde KA, Treat MR, Waye JD, Santos J, Ahsan H. Cigarette smoking and other behavioral risk factors for recurrence of colorectal adenomatous polyps (New York City, NY, USA). Cancer Causes and Control. 1994;5(3):215–20. [PubMed]

324. Jacquet M, Lambert V, Baudoux E, Muller M, Kremers P, Gielen J. Correlation between P450 CYP1A1 inducibility, MspI genotype and lung cancer incidence. European Journal of Cancer. 1996;32A(10):1701–6. [PubMed]

325. Jedrychowski W, Boeing H, Wahrendorf J, Popiela T, Tobiasz-Adamczyk B, Kulig J. Vodka consumption, tobacco smoking and risk of gastric cancer in Poland. International Journal of Epidemiology. 1993;22(4):606–13. [PubMed]

326. Jedrychowski W, Popiela T, Drews M, Gabryelewicz A, Marlicz K, Misiunia P, Wajda Z, Matyja A, Nowak K, Ramroth H, Wahrendorf J. Effect of Helicobacter pylori infection, smoking and dietary habits on the occurrence of antrum intestinal metaplasia: clinico-epidemiological study in Poland. Polish Journal of Pathology. 1999;50(4):289–95.[PubMed]

327. Jedrychowski W, Wahrendorf J, Popiela T, Rachtan J. A case-control study of dietary factors and stomach cancer risk in Poland. International Journal of Cancer. 1986;37(6):837–42. [PubMed]

328. Ji BT, Chow WH, Gridley G, McLaughlin JK, Dai Q, Wacholder S, Hatch MC, Gao YT, Fraumeni JF Jr. Dietary factors and the risk of pancreatic cancer: a case-control study in Shanghai China. Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers and Prevention. 1995;4(8):885–93.[PubMed]

329. Ji B-T, Chow W-H, Yang G, McLaughlin JK, Gao R-N, Zheng W, Shu X-O, Jin F, Fraumeni JF Jr, Gao Y-T. The influence of cigarette smoking, alcohol, and green tea consumption on the risk of carcinoma of the cardia and distal stomach in Shanghai, China. Cancer. 1996;77(12):2449–57. [PubMed]

330. Johnson KC, Hu J, Mao Y. Passive and active smoking and breast cancer risk in Canada, 1994–97: the Canadian Cancer Registries Epidemiology Research Group. Cancer Causes and Control. 2000;11(3):211–21. [PubMed]

331. Kabat GC, Augustine A, Hebert JR. Smoking and adult leukemia: a case-control study. Journal of Clinical Epidemiology. 1988;41(9):907–14. [PubMed]

332. Kabat GC, Chang CJ, Sparano JA, Sepkovic DW, Hu X-P, Khalil A, Rosenblatt R, Bradlow HL. Urinary estrogen metabolites and breast cancer: a case-control study. Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers and Prevention. 1997;6(7):505–9. [PubMed]

333. Kabat GC, Ng SKC, Wynder EL. Tobacco, alcohol intake, and diet in relation to adenocarcinoma of the esophagus and gastric cardia. Cancer Causes and Control. 1993;4(2):123–32. [PubMed]

334. Kahn HA. The Dorn study of smoking and mortality among US veterans: report on eight and one-half years of observation. In: Haenszel W, editor. Epidemiological Approaches to the Study of Cancer and Other Chronic Diseases. National Cancer Institute Monograph No 19.Bethesda (MD): U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Public Health Service, National Cancer Institute; 1966. pp. 1–125.

335. Kalapothaki V, Tzonou A, Hsieh C-C, Toupadaki N, Karakatsani A, Trichopoulos D. Tobacco, ethanol, coffee, pancreatitis, diabetes mellitus, and cholelithiasis as risk factors for pancreatic carcinoma. Cancer Causes and Control. 1993;4(4):375–82. [PubMed]

336. Kamb A, Gruis NA, Weaver-Feldhaus J, Liu Q, Harshman K, Tavtigian SV, Stockert E, Day RS 3rd, Johnson BE, Skolnick MH. A cell cycle regulator potentially involved in genesis of many tumor types. Science. 1994;264(5157):436–40. [PubMed]

337. Kane EV, Roman E, Cartwright R, Parker J, Morgan G. Tobacco and the risk of acute leukaemia in adults. British Journal of Cancer. 1999;81(7):1288–33. [PMC free article] [PubMed]

338. Kashiwabara K, Oyama T, Sano T, Fukuda T, Nakajima T. Correlation between methylation status of the p16/CDKN2 gene and the expression of p16 and Rb proteins in primary non-small cell lung cancers. International Journal of Cancer. 1998;79(3):215–20. [PubMed]

339. Kato I, Tominaga S, Ikari A. An epidemiological study on occupation and cancer risk. Japanese Journal of Clinical Oncology. 1990a;20(2):121–7. [PubMed]

340. Kato I, Tominaga S, Matsumoto K. A prospective study of stomach cancer among a rural Japanese population: a 6-year survey. Japanese Journal of Cancer Research. 1992;83(6):568–75. [PMC free article] [PubMed]

341. Kato I, Tominaga S, Matsuura A, Yoshii Y, Shirai M, Kobayashi S. A comparative case-control study of colorectal cancer and adenoma. Japanese Journal of Cancer Research. 1990b;81(11):1101–8. [PMC free article] [PubMed]

342. Katsouyanni K, Trichopoulou A, Stuver S, Vassilaros S, Papadiamantis Y, Bournas N, Skarpou N, Mueller N, Trichopoulos D. Ethanol and breast cancer: an association that may be both confounded and causal. International Journal of Cancer. 1994;58(3):356–61. [PubMed]

343. Kaufman DW, Palmer JR, Rosenberg L, Stolley P, Warshauer E, Shapiro S. Tar content of cigarettes in relation to lung cancer. American Journal of Epidemiology. 1989;129(4):703–11. [PubMed]

344. Kawajiri K, Eguchi H, Nakachi K, Sekiya T, Yamamoto M. Associate of CYP1A1 germ line polymorphisms with mutations of the p53 gene in lung cancer. Cancer Research. 1996;56(1):72–6. [PubMed]

345. Kawajiri K, Nakachi K, Imai K, Watanabe J, Hayashi S-I. The CYP1A1gene and cancer susceptibility. Critical Reviews in Oncology/Hematology. 1993;14(1):77–87. [PubMed]

346. Kawajiri K, Nakachi K, Imai K, Yoshii A, Shinoda N, Watanabe J. Identification of genetically high risk individuals to lung cancer by DNA polymorphisms of the cytochrome P450IA1 gene. FEBS Letters. 1990;263(1):131–3. [PubMed]

347. Keller AZ, Terris M. The association of alcohol and tobacco with cancer of the mouth and pharynx. American Journal of Public Health. 1965;55(10):1578–85. [PMC free article] [PubMed]

348. Kelsey JL, Gammon MD, John EM. Reproductive factors and breast cancer. Epidemiologic Reviews. 1993;15(1):36–47. [PubMed]

349. Kew MC, Dibisceglie AM, Paterson AC. Smoking as a risk factor in hepatocellular carcinoma: a case-control study in southern African blacks. Cancer. 1985;56(9):2315–7. [PubMed]

350. Key TJA, Pike MC, Baron JA, Moore JW, Wang DY, Thomas BS, Bulbrook RD. Cigarette smoking and steroid hormones in women. Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology. 1991;39(4A):529–34. [PubMed]

351. Khaw K-T, Tazuke S, Barrett-Connor E. Cigarette smoking and levels of adrenal androgens in postmeno-pausal women. New England Journal of Medicine. 1988;318(26):1705–9. [PubMed]

352. Kihara M, Kihara M, Noda K. Lung cancer risk of GSTM1 null genotype is dependent on the extent of tobacco smoke exposure. Carcinogenesis. 1994;15(2):415–8. [PubMed]

353. Kikendall JW, Bowen PE, Burgess MB, Magnetti C, Woodward J, Langenberg P. Cigarettes and alcohol as independent risk factors for colonic adenomas. Gastroenterology. 1989;97(3):660–4. [PubMed]

354. Kinlen LJ, Rogot E. Leukaemia and smoking habits among United States veterans. British Medical Journal. 1988;297(6649):657–9. [PMC free article] [PubMed]

355. Kinzler KW, Vogelstein B. Colorectal tumors. In: Vogelstein B, Kinzler KW, editors. The Genetic Basis of Human Cancer. New York: McGraw-Hill; 1998. pp. 565–87.

356. Klatsky AL, Armstrong MA, Friedman GD, Hiatt RA. The relations of alcoholic beverage use to colon and rectal cancer. American Journal of Epidemiology. 1988;128(5):1007–15. [PubMed]

357. Kleinberg DL. Prolactin and breast cancer

[editorial]

 New England Journal of Medicine. 1987;316(5):269–70. [PubMed]

358. Knekt P, Hakama M, Järvinen R, Pukkala E, Heliövaara M. Smoking and risk of colorectal cancer. British Journal of Cancer. 1998;78(1):136–9. [PMC free article] [PubMed]

359. Knekt P, Järvinen R, Dich J, Hakulinen T. Risk of colorectal and other gastro-intestinal cancers after exposure to nitrate, nitrite and N-nitroso compounds: a follow-up study. International Journal of Cancer. 1999;80(6):852–6. [PubMed]

360. Kneller RW, McLaughlin JK, Bjelke E, Schuman LM, Blot WJ, Wacholder S, Gridley G, CoChien HT, Fraumeni JF Jr. A cohort study of stomach cancer in a high-risk American population. Cancer. 1991;68(3):672–8. [PubMed]

361. Kneller RW, You W-C, Chang Y-S, Liu W-D, Zhang L, Zhao L, Xu G-W, Fraumeni JF Jr, Blot WJ. Cigarette smoking and other risk factors for progression of precancerous stomach lesions. Journal of the National Cancer Institute. 1992;84(16):1261–6. [PubMed]

362. Koch WM, Lango M, Sewell D, Zahurak M, Sidransky D. Head and neck cancer in nonsmokers: a distinct clinical and molecular entity. Laryngoscope. 1999;109(10):1544–51. [PubMed]

363. Kohno H, Hiroshima K, Toyozaki T, Fujisawa T, Ohwada H. P53 mutation and allelic loss of chromosome 3p, 9p of preneoplastic lesions in patients with nonsmall cell lung carcinoma. Cancer. 1999;85(2):341–7. [PubMed]

364. Kondo K, Tsuzuki H, Sasa M, Sumitomo M, Uyama T, Monden Y. A dose-response relationship between the frequency of p53 mutations and tobacco consumption in lung cancer patients. Journal of Surgical Oncology. 1996;61(1):20–6. [PubMed]

365. Kono S, Ikeda M, Tokudome S, Nishizumi M, Kuratsune M. Cigarette smoking, alcohol and cancer mortality: a cohort study of male Japanese physicians. Japanese Journal of Cancer Research. 1987;78(12):1323–8.[PubMed]

366. Korte JE, Hertz-Picciotto I, Schulz MR, Ball LM, Duell EJ. The contribution of benzene to smoking-induced leukemia. Environmental Health Perspectives. 2000;108(4):333–9. [PMC free article] [PubMed]

367. Kosinska W, von Pressentin MDM, Guttenplan JB. Mutagenesis induced by benzo[a]pyrene in lacZ mouse mammary and oral tissues: comparisons with mutagenesis in other organs and relationships to previous carcinogenicity assays. Carcinogenesis. 1999;20(6):1103–6.[PubMed]

368. Kratzke RA, Greatens TM, Rubins JB, Maddaus MA, Niewoehner DE, Niehans GA, Geradts J. Rb and p16INK4a expression in resected non-small cell lung tumors. Cancer Research. 1996;56(15):3415–20.[PubMed]

369. Kresty LA, Carmella SG, Borukhova A, Akerkar SA, Gopalakrishnan R, Harris RE, Stoner GD, Hecht SS. Metabolites of a tobacco-specific nitrosamine, 4-(methylnitrosamino)-1-(3-pyridyl)-1-butanone (NNK), in the urine of smokeless tobacco users: relationship between urinary biomarkers and oral leukoplakia. Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers and Prevention. 1996;5(7):521–5. [PubMed]

370. Kropp S, Becher H, Nieters A, Chang-Claude J. Low-to-moderate alcohol consumption and breast cancer risk by age 50 years among women in Germany. American Journal of Epidemiology. 2001;154(7):624–34. [PubMed]

371. Kune GA, Kune S, Vitetta L, Watson LF. Smoking and colorectal cancer risk: data from the Melbourne Colorectal Cancer Study and brief review of literature. International Journal of Cancer. 1992;50(3):369–72. [PubMed]

372. Kuper H, Tzonou A, Kaklamani E, Hsieh CC, Lagiou P, Adami H-O, Trichopoulos D, Stuver SO. Tobacco smoking, alcohol consumption and their interaction in the causation of hepatocellular carcinoma. International Journal of Cancer. 2000;85(4):498–502. [PubMed]

373. Kuratsune M, Kohchi S, Horie A. Carcinogenesis in the esophagus. I: penetration of benzo[a]pyrene and other hydrocarbons into the esophageal mucosa. Japanese Journal of Cancer Research. 1965;56:177–87. [PubMed]

374. Kwiatkowski DJ, Harpole DH Jr, Godleski J, Herndon JE 2nd, Shieh DB, Richards W, Blanco R, Xu HJ, Strauss GM, Sugarbaker DJ. Molecular pathologic substaging in 244 stage I non-small-cell lung cancer patients: clinical implications. Journal of Clinical Oncology. 1998;16(7):2468–77. [PubMed]

375. La Vecchia C, Decarli A, Parazzini F, Gentil A, Negri E, Cecchetti G, Franceschi S. General epidemiology of breast cancer in northern Italy. International Journal of Epidemiology. 1987;16(3):347–55. [PubMed]

376. La Vecchia C, Franceschi S, Bosetti C, Levi F, Talamini R, Negri E. Time since stopping smoking and the risk of oral and pharyngeal cancers [letter] Journal of the National Cancer Institute. 1999;91(8):726–8. [PubMed]

377. La Vecchia C, Negri E. The role of alcohol in oesophageal cancer in non-smokers, and of tobacco in non-drinkers. International Journal of Cancer. 1989;43(5):784–5. [PubMed]

378. La Vecchia C, Negri E, Decarli A, D’Avanzo B, Franceschi S. Risk factors for hepatocellular carcinoma in northern Italy. International Journal of Cancer. 1988;42(6):872–6. [PubMed]

379. La Vecchia C, Negri E, Parazzini F, Boyle P, Fasoli M, Gentile A, Franceschi S. Alcohol and breast cancer: update from an Italian case-control study. European Journal of Cancer and Clinical Oncology. 1989;25(12):1711–7. [PubMed]

380. Labenz J, Blum AL, Bayerdorffer E, Meining A, Stolte M, Borsch G. Curing Helicobacter pylori infection in patients with duodenal ulcer may provoke reflux esophagitis. Gastroenterology. 1997;112(5):1442–7. [PubMed]

381. Lagergren J, Bergström R, Lindgren A, Nyrén O. Symptomatic gastroesophageal reflux as a risk factor for esophageal adenocarcinoma. New England Journal of Medicine. 1999;340(11):825–31. [PubMed]

382. Lagergren J, Bergström R, Lindgren A, Nyrén O. The role of tobacco, snuff and alcohol use in the aetiology of cancer of the oesophagus and gastric cardia. International Journal of Cancer. 2000;85(3):340–6.[PubMed]

383. Lam KC, Yu MC, Leung JW, Henderson BE. Hepatitis B virus and cigarette smoking: risk factors for hepatocellular carcinoma in Hong Kong. Cancer Research. 1982;42(12):5246–8. [PubMed]

384. Land CE, Hayakawa N, Machado SG, Yamada Y, Pike MC, Akiba S, Tokunaga M. A case-control interview study of breast cancer among Japanese A-bomb survivors. II: interactions with radiation dose. Cancer Causes and Control. 1994;5(2):167–76. [PubMed]

385. Landi MT, Bertazzi PA, Shields PG, Clark G, Lucier GW, Garte SJ, Cosma J, Caporosa NE. Association between CYP1A1 genotype, mRNA expression and enzymatic activity in humans. Pharmacogenetics. 1994;4(5):242–6. [PubMed]

386. Law MR, Cheng R, Hackshaw AK, Allaway S, Hale AK. Cigarette smoking, sex hormones and bone density in women. European Journal of Epidemiology. 1997;13(5):553–8. [PubMed]

387. Lazarus P, Garewal HS, Sciubba J, Zwiebel N, Calcagnotto A, Fair A, Schaefer S, Richie JP Jr. A low incidence of p53 mutations in pre-malignant lesions of the oral cavity from non-tobacco users. International Journal of Cancer. 1995;60(4):458–63. [PubMed]

388. Le MG, Moulton LH, Hill C, Kramar A. Consumption of dairy produce and alcohol in a case-control study of breast cancer. Journal of the National Cancer Institute. 1986;77(3):633–6. [PubMed]

389. Le Marchand L, Kolonel LN, Wilkens LR, Myers BC, Hirohata T. Animal fat consumption and prostate cancer: a prospective study in Hawaii. Epidemiology. 1994;5(3):276–82. [PubMed]

390. Le Marchand L, Wilkens LR, Kolonel LN, Hankin JH, Lyu L-C. Associations of sedentary lifestyle, obesity, smoking, alcohol use, and diabetes with the risk of colorectal cancer. Cancer Research. 1997;57(21):4787–94. [PubMed]

391. Lee JJ, Hong WK, Hittelman WN, Mao L, Lotan R, Shin DM, Benner SE, Xu X-C, Lee JS, Papadimitra-kopoulou VM, Geyer C, Perez C, Martin JW, El-Naggar AK, Lippman SM. Predicting cancer development in oral leukoplakia: ten years of translational research. Clinical Cancer Research. 2000;6(5):1702–10. [PubMed]

392. Lee M, Wrensch M, Miike R. Dietary and tobacco risk factors for adult onset glioma in the San Francisco Bay area (California, USA). Cancer Causes and Control. 1997;8(1):13–24. [PubMed]

393. Lee NC, Rosero-Bixby L, Oberle MW, Grimaldo C, Whatley AS, Rovira EZ. A case-control study of breast cancer and hormonal contraception in Costa Rica. Journal of the National Cancer Institute. 1987;79(6):1247–54. [PubMed]

394. Lee WC, Neugut AI, Garbowski GC, Forde KA, Treat MR, Waye JD, Fenoglio-Preiser C. Cigarettes, alcohol, coffee, and caffeine as risk factors for colorectal adenomatous polyps. Annals of Epidemiology. 1993;3(3):239–44. [PubMed]

395. Levi F, Pasche C, La Vecchia C, Lucchini F, Franceschi S, Monnier P. Food groups and risk of oral and pharyngeal cancer. International Journal of Cancer. 1998;77(5):705–9. [PubMed]

396. Levi F, Pasche C, Lucchini F, La Vecchia C. Alcohol and breast cancer in the Swiss Canton of Vaud. European Journal of Cancer. 1996;32A(12):2108–13. [PubMed]

397. Levitt NC, Hickson ID. Caretaker tumour suppressor genes that defend genome integrity. Trends in Molecular medicine. 2002;8(4):179–86.[PubMed]

398. Ley C, Parsonnet J. Gastric adenocarcinoma. In: Goedert JJ, editor. Infectious Causes of Cancer: Targets for Intervention. Totowa (NJ): Humana Press; 2000. pp. 389–410.

399. Li D, Wang M, Dhingra K, Hittelman WN. Aromatic DNA adducts in adjacent tissues of breast cancer patients: clues to breast cancer etiology. Cancer Research. 1996;56(2):287–93. [PubMed]

400. Liaw K-M, Chen C-J. Mortality attributable to cigarette smoking in Taiwan: a 12-year follow-up study. Tobacco Control. 1998;7(2):141–8.[PMC free article] [PubMed]

401. Lin HJ. Smokers and breast cancer: “chemical individuality” and cancer predisposition [editorial] Journal of the American Medical Association. 1996;276(18):1511–2. [PubMed]

402. Lin HJ, Han CY, Lin BK, Hardy S. Slow acetylator mutations in the human polymorphic N-acetyltransferase gene in 786 Asians, blacks, Hispanics, and whites: application to metabolic epidemiology. American Journal of Human Genetics. 1993;52(4):827–34. [PMC free article] [PubMed]

403. Lin HJ, Probst-Hensch NM, Ingles SA, Han C-Y, Lin BK, Lee DB, Frankl HD, Lee ER, Longnecker MP, Haile RW. Glutathione transferase (GSTM1) null genotype, smoking, and prevalence of colorectal adenomas. Cancer Research. 1995;55(6):1224–6. [PubMed]

404. Lin SK, Lambert JR, Nicholson L, Lukito W, Wahlqvist M. Prevalence of Helicobacter pylori in a representative Anglo-Celtic population of urban Melbourne. Journal of Gastroenterology and Hepatology. 1998;13(5):505–10. [PubMed]

405. Lindell G, Hesselvik M, Schalén C, Wikander M, Graffner H. Helicobacter pylori, smoking and gas-troduodenitis. Digestion. 1991;49(4):192–7. [PubMed]

406. Linet MS, Cartwright RA. The leukemias. In: Schottenfeld D, Fraumeni JF Jr, editors. Cancer Epidemiology and Prevention. 2nd ed. New York: Oxford University Press; 1996. pp. 841–92.

407. Linet MS, McLaughlin JK, Hsing AW, Wacholder S, Co-Chien HT, Schuman LM, Bjelke E, Blot WJ. Cigarette smoking and leukemia: results from the Lutheran Brotherhood Cohort Study. Cancer Causes and Control. 1991;2(6):413–7. [PubMed]

408. Littman AJ, Beresford SA, White E. The association of dietary fat and plant foods with endometrial cancer (United States). Cancer Causes and Control. 2001;12(8):691–702. [PubMed]

409. Liu B, Nicolaides NC, Markowitz S, Willson JKV, Parsons RE, Jen J, Papadopolous N, Peltomäki P, de la Chapelle A, Hamilton SR, Kinzler KW, Vogelstein B. Mismatch repair gene defects in sporadic colorectal cancers with microsatellite instability. Nature Genetics. 1995;9(1):48–55. [PubMed]

410. Liu B, Parsons R, Papadopoulos N, Nicolaides NC, Lynch HT, Watson P, Jass JR, Dunlop M, Wyllie A, Peltomäki P, de la Chapelle A, Hamilton SR, Vogelstein B, Kinzler KW. Analysis of mismatch repair genes in hereditary non-polyposis colorectal cancer patients. Nature Medicine. 1996;2(2):169–74. [PubMed]

411. Liu FS, Dawsey SM, Wang GQ, Rao M, Lipkin M, Lewin KJ, Li JY, Li B, Taylor PR. Correlation of epithelial proliferation and squamous esophageal histology in 1185 biopsies from Linxian, China. International Journal of Cancer. 1993;55(4):577–9. [PubMed]

412. London SJ, Colditz GA, Stampfer MJ, Willett WC, Rosner BA, Speizer FE. Prospective study of smoking and the risk of breast cancer. Journal of the National Cancer Institute. 1989;81(21):1625–31. [PubMed]

413. London SJ, Daly AK, Cooper J, Navidi WC, Carpenter CL, Idle JR. Polymorphism of glutathione S-transferase M1 and lung cancer risk among African-Americans and Caucasians in Los Angeles County, California. Journal of the National Cancer Institute. 1995;87(16):1246–53. [PubMed]

414. London WT, McGlynn KA. Liver cancer. In: Schottenfield D, Fraumeni JF, editors. Cancer Epidemiology and Prevention. 2nd ed. New York: Oxford University Press; 1996. pp. 772–93.

415. Longcope C, Johnston CC Jr. Androgen and estrogen dynamics in pre- and postmenopausal women: a comparison between smokers and nonsmokers. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism. 1988;67(2):379–83. [PubMed]

416. Longnecker MP, Chen M-J, Probst-Hensch NM, Harper JM, Lee ER, Frankl HD, Haile RW. Alcohol and smoking in relation to the prevalence of adenomatous colorectal polyps detected at sigmoidoscopy. Epidemiology. 1996;7(3):275–80. [PubMed]

417. Longnecker MP, Clapp RW, Sheahan K. Associations between smoking status and stage of colorectal cancer at diagnosis in Massachusetts between 1982 and 1987. Cancer. 1989;64(6):1372–4. [PubMed]

418. Longnecker MP, Newcomb PA, Mittendorf R, Greenberg ER, Clapp RW, Bogdan GF, Baron J, MacMahon B, Willett WC. Risk of breast cancer in relation to lifetime alcohol consumption. Journal of the National Cancer Institute. 1995a;87(12):923–9. [PubMed]

419. Longnecker MP, Paganini-Hill A, Ross RK. Lifetime alcohol consumption and breast cancer risk among postmenopausal women in Los Angeles. Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers and Prevention. 1995b;4(7):721–5. [PubMed]

420. Lowenfels AB, Maisonneuve P, Whitcomb DC, Lerch MM, DiMagno EP. Cigarette smoking as a risk factor for pancreatic cancer in patients with hereditary pancreatitis. Journal of the American Medical Association. 2001;286(2):169–70. [PubMed]

421. Lu SH. Alterations of oncogenes and tumor suppressor genes in esophageal cancer in China. Mutation Research. 2000;462(2–3):343–53. [PubMed]

422. Lu AYH, Kuntzman R, West S, Jacobson M, Conney AH. Reconstituted liver microsomal enzyme system that hydroxylates drugs, other foreign compounds, and endogenous substrates. II: role of the cyto-chrome P-450 and P-448 fractions in drugs and steroid hydroxylations. Journal of Biological Chemistry. 1972;247(6):1727–34. [PubMed]

423. Lu SN, Lin TM, Chen CJ, Chen JS, Liaw YF, Chang WY, Hsu ST. A case-control study of primary hepatocellular carcinoma in Taiwan. Cancer. 1988;62(9):2051–5. [PubMed]

424. Lubin JH, Blot WJ, Berrino F, Flamant R, Gillis CR, Kunze M, Schmahl D, Visco G. Patterns of lung cancer risk according to type of cigarette smoked. International Journal of Cancer. 1984;33(5):569–76.[PubMed]

425. Mack TM, Yu MC, Hanisch R, Henderson BE. Pancreas cancer and smoking, beverage consumption, and past medical history. Journal of the National Cancer Institute. 1986;76(1):49–60. [PubMed]

426. Macklin MT, Macklin CC. Does chronic irritation cause primary carcinoma of the human lung? Archives of Pathology. 1940;30:924–55.

427. MacMahon B, Feinleib M. Breast cancer in relation to nursing and menopausal history. Journal of the National Cancer Institute. 1960;24(3):733–53. [PubMed]

428. MacMahon B, Trichopoulos D, Cole P, Brown J. Cigarette smoking and urinary estrogens. New England Journal of Medicine. 1982;307(17):1062–5. [PubMed]

429. Magnusson C, Baron JA, Correia N, Bergström R, Adami H-O, Persson I. Breast-cancer risk following long-term oestrogen- and oestrogen-progestin-replacement therapy. International Journal of Cancer. 1999;81(3):339–44. [PubMed]

430. Maier H, Dietz A, Gewelke U, Heller WD, Weidauer H. Tobacco and alcohol and the risk of head and neck cancer. The Clinical Investigator. 1992;70(3–4):320–7. [PubMed]

431. Maier H, Tisch M. Epidemiology of laryngeal cancer: results of the Heidelberg case-control study. Acta Oto-Laryngologica Supplementum. 1997;527:160–4. [PubMed]

432. Malats N, Porta M, Corominas JM, Piñol JL, Rifà J, Real FX. Ki-ras mutations in exocrine pancreatic cancer: association with clinico-pathological characteristics and with tobacco and alcohol consumption. International Journal of Cancer. 1997;70(6):661–7. [PubMed]

433. Mandard A-M, Hainaut P, Hollstein M. Genetic steps in the development of squamous cell carcinoma of the esophagus. Mutation Research. 2000;462(2–3):335–42. [PubMed]

434. Mannervik B, Danielson UH. Glutathione trans-ferases—structure and catalytic activity. CRC Critical Reviews in Biochemistry and Molecular Biology. 1988;23(3):283–337. [PubMed]

435. Mao L, Lee JS, Fan YH, Ro JY, Batsakis JG, Lippman S, Hittelman W, Hong WK. Frequent microsatellite alterations at chromosomes 9p21 and 3p14 in oral premalignant lesions and their value in cancer risk assessment. Nature Medicine. 1996;2(6):682–5. [PubMed]

436. Marchbanks PA, Wilson H, Bastos E, Cramer DW, Schildkraut JM, Peterson HB. Cigarette smoking and epithelial ovarian cancer by histologic type. Obstetrics and Gynecology. 2000;95(2):255–60.[PubMed]

437. Marchetti A, Buttitta F, Pellegrini S, Bertacca G, Chella A, Carnicelli V, Tognoni V, Filardo A, Angeletti CA, Bevilacqua G. Alterations of p16 (MST1) in node-positive non-small cell lung carcinomas. Journal of Pathology. 1997;181(2):178–82. [PubMed]

438. Marcus PM, Hayes RB, Vineis P, Garcia-Closas M, Caporaso NE, Autrup H, Branch RA, Brockmoller J, Ishizaki T, Karakaya AE, Ladero JM, Mommsen S, Okkels H, Romkes M, Roots I, Rothman N. Cigarette smoking, N-acetyltransferase 2 acetylation status, and bladder cancer risk: a case-series meta-analysis of a gene-environment interaction. Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers and Prevention. 2000a;9(5):461–7.[PubMed]

439. Marcus PM, Vineis P, Rothman N. NAT2 slow acetylation and bladder cancer risk: a meta-analysis of 22 case-control studies conducted in the general population. Pharmacogenetics. 2000b;10(2):115–22. [PubMed]

440. Martin DF, Montgomery E, Dobek AS, Patrissi GA, Peura DA. Campylobacter pylori, NSAIDS, and smoking: risk factors for peptic ulcer disease. American Journal of Gastroenterology. 1989;84(10):1268–72. [PubMed]

441. Martin GC, Brown JP, Eifler CW, Houston GD. Oral leukoplakia status six weeks after cessation of smokeless tobacco use. Journal of the American Dental Association. 1999;130(7):945–54. [PubMed]

442. Martínez ME, McPherson RS, Annegers JF, Levin B. Cigarette smoking and alcohol consumption as risk factors for colorectal adenomatous polyps. Journal of the National Cancer Institute. 1995;87(4):274–9.[PubMed]

443. Mashberg A, Boffetta P, Winkelman R, Garfinkel L. Tobacco smoking, alcohol drinking, and cancer of the oral cavity and oropharynx among U.S. veterans. Cancer. 1993;72(4):1369–75. [PubMed]

444. Mattison DR. Morphology of oocyte and follicle destruction by polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in mice. Toxicology and Applied Pharmacology. 1980;53(2):249–59. [PubMed]

445. Maxton DG, Srivastava ED, Whorwell PJ, Jones DM. Do non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs or smoking predispose to Helicobacter pyloriinfection? Postgraduate Medical Journal. 1990;66(779):717–9. [PMC free article] [PubMed]

446. McCann MF, Irwin DE, Walton LA, Hulka BS, Morton JL, Axelrad CM. Nicotine and cotinine in the cervical mucus of smokers, passive smokers, and non-smokers. Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers and Prevention. 1992;1(2):125–9. [PubMed]

447. McCredie MR, Dite GS, Giles GG, Hopper JL. Breast cancer in Australian women under the age of 40. Cancer Causes and Control. 1998;9(2):189–98. [PubMed]

448. McKean-Cowdin R, Feigelson HS, Ross RK, Pike MC, Henderson BE. Declining cancer rates in the 1990s. Journal of Clinical Oncology. 2000;18(11):2258–68. [PubMed]

449. McLaughlin JK, Blot WJ, Devesa SS, Fraumeni JF Jr. Renal cancer. In: Schottenfeld D, Fraumeni JF Jr, editors. Cancer Epidemiology and Prevention. 2nd ed. New York: Oxford University Press; 1996. pp. 1142–55.

450. McLaughlin JK, Hrubec Z, Blot WJ, Fraumeni JF Jr. Smoking and cancer mortality among U.S. veterans: a 26-year follow-up. International Journal of Cancer. 1995a;60(2):190–3. [PubMed]

451. McLaughlin JK, Hrubec Z, Linet MS, Heineman EF, Blot WJ, Fraumeni JF Jr. Cigarette smoking and leukemia [letter] Journal of the National Cancer Institute. 1989;81(16):1262–3. [PubMed]

452. McLaughlin JK, Lindblad P, Mellemgaard A, McCredie M, Mandel JS, Schlehofer B, Pommer W, Adami HO. International renal-cell cancer study. I: tobacco use. International Journal of Cancer. 1995b;60(2):194–8. [PubMed]

453. McMichael AJ, Giles GG. Cancer in migrants to Australia: extending the descriptive epidemiological data. Cancer Research. 1988;48(3):751–6. [PubMed]

454. McTiernan A, Thomas DB, Johnson LK, Roseman D. Risk factors for estrogen receptor-rich and estrogen receptor-poor breast cancers. Journal of the National Cancer Institute. 1986;77(4):849–54. [PubMed]

455. Meara J, McPherson K, Roberts M, Jones L, Vessey M. Alcohol, cigarette smoking and breast cancer. British Journal of Cancer. 1989;60(1):70–3. [PMC free article] [PubMed]

456. Mele A, Szklo M, Visani G, Stazi MA, Castelli G, Pasquini P, Mandelli F. Hair dye use and other risk factors for leukemia and pre-leukemia: a case-control study. Italian Leukemia Study Group. American Journal of Epidemiology. 1994;139(6):609–19. [PubMed]

457. Melikian AA, Wang X, Waggoner S, Hoffmann D, El-Bayoumy K. Comparative response of normal and of human papillomavirus-16 immortalized human epithelial cervical cells to benzo[a]pyrene. Oncology Reports. 1999;6(6):1371–6. [PubMed]

458. Michaud DS, Giovannucci E, Willett WC, Colditz GA, Fuchs CS. Coffee and alcohol consumption and the risk of pancreatic cancer in two prospective United States cohorts. Cancer Epidemiology, Biomakers and Prevention. 2001;10(5):429–37. [PubMed]

459. Michnovicz JJ, Hershcopf RJ, Naganuma H, Bradlow HL, Fishman J. Increased 2-hydroxylation of estradiol as a possible mechanism for the anti-estrogenic effect of cigarette smoking. New England Journal of Medicine. 1986;315(21):1305–9. [PubMed]

460. Millikan RC, Pittman GS, Newman B, Tse C-KJ, Selmin O, Rockhill B, Savitz D, Moorman PG, Bell DA. Cigarette smoking, N-acetyltransferases 1 and 2, and breast cancer risk. Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers and Prevention. 1998;7(5):371–8. [PubMed]

461. Million Women Study Collaborative Group. The Million Women Study: design and characteristics of the study population. Breast Cancer Research. 1999;1(1):73–80. [PMC free article] [PubMed]

462. Mills PK, Beeson WL, Phillips RL, Fraser GE. Cohort study of diet, lifestyle, and prostate cancer in Adventist men. Cancer. 1989a;64(3):598–604. [PubMed]

463. Mills PK, Beeson WL, Phillips RL, Fraser GE. Prospective study of exogenous hormone use and breast cancer in Seventh-day Adventists. Cancer. 1989b;64(3):591–7. [PubMed]

464. Mills PK, Newell GR, Beeson WL, Fraser GE, Phillips RL. History of cigarette smoking and risk of leukemia and myeloma: results from the Adventist Health Study. Journal of the National Cancer Institute. 1990;82(23):1832–6. [PubMed]

465. Mishina T, Watanabe H, Araki H, Nakao M. Epidemiological study of prostatic cancer by matched-pair analysis. Prostate. 1985;6(4):423–36.[PubMed]

466. Mizoue T, Tokui N, Nishisaka K, Nishisaka S, Ogimoto I, Ikeda M, Yoshimura T. Prospective study on the relation of cigarette smoking with cancer of the liver and stomach in an endemic region. International Journal of Epidemiology. 2000;29(2):232–7. [PubMed]

467. Monnet E, Allemand H, Farina H, Carayon P. Cigarette smoking and the risk of colorectal adenoma in men. Scandinavian Journal of Gastroenterology. 1991;26(7):758–62. [PubMed]

468. Montesano R, Hainaut P, Hall J. The use of biomarkers to study pathogenesis and mechanisms of cancer: oesophagus and skin cancer as models. In: Toniolo P, Boffetta P, Shuker DEG, Rothman N, Hulka B, Pearce N, editors. Application of Biomarkers in Cancer Epidemiology. IARC Scientific Publications No 142. Lyon (France): International Agency for Research on Cancer; 1997. pp. 291–301. [PubMed]

469. Moore C. Multiple mouth-throat cancer. American Journal of Surgery. 1965;110(4):534–6. [PubMed]

470. Morabia A, Bernstein M, Héritier S. Re: “Smoking and breast cancer: reconciling the epidemiologic evidence by accounting for passive smoking and/or genetic susceptibility” [letter] American Journal of Epidemiology. 1998a;147(10):992–3. [PubMed]

471. Morabia A, Bernstein M, Héritier S, Khatchatarian N. Relation of breast cancer with passive and active exposure to tobacco smoke. American Journal of Epidemiology. 1996;143(9):918–28. [PubMed]

472. Morabia A, Bernstein M, Ruiz J, Héritier S, Berger SD, Borisch B. Relation of smoking to breast cancer by estrogen receptor status. International Journal of Cancer. 1998b;75(3):339–42. [PubMed]

473. Morabia A, Wynder EL. Cigarette smoking and lung cancer cell types. Cancer. 1991;68(9):2074–8. [PubMed]

474. Mori M, Hara M, Wada I, Hara T, Yamamoto K, Honda M, Naramoto J. Prospective study of hepatitis B and C viral infections, cigarette smoking, alcohol consumption, and other factors associated with hepatocellular carcinoma risk in Japan. American Journal of Epidemiology. 2000a;151(2):131–9. [PubMed]

475. Mori M, Mimori K, Shiraishi T, Alder H, Inoue H, Tanaka Y, Sugimachi K, Huebner K, Croce CM. Altered expression of fhit in carcinoma and precarcinomatous lesions of the esophagus. Cancer Research. 2000b;60(5):1177–82. [PubMed]

476. Morin PJ, Sparks AB, Korinek V, Barker N, Clevers H, Vogelstein B, Kinzler KW. Activation of ?-catenin-Tcf signaling in colon cancer by mutations in ?-catenin or APC. Science. 1997;275(5307):1787–90.[PubMed]

477. Moscicki AB, Hills N, Shiboski S, Powell K, Jay N, Hanson E, Miller S, Clayton L, Farhat S, Broering J, Darragh T, Palefsky J. Risks for incident human papillomavirus infection and low-grade squamous intraepithelial lesion development in young females. Journal of the American Medical Association. 2001;285(23):2995–3002. [PubMed]

478. Mueller J, Werner M, Siewert JR. Malignant progression in Barrett’s esophagus: pathology and molecular biology. Recent Results in Cancer Research. 2000;155:29–41. [PubMed]

479. Muñoz N, Bosch FX, de Sanjosé S, Vergara A, del Moral A, Muñoz MT, Tafur L, Gili M, Izarzugaza I, Viladiu P, Navarro C, Alonso de Ruiz P, Aristizabal N, Santamaria M, Orfila J, Daniel RW, Guerrero E, Shah KV. Risk factors for cervical intraepithelial neoplasia grade III/carcinoma in situ in Spain and Colombia. Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers and Prevention. 1993;2(5):423–31. [PubMed]

480. Munoz N, Day NE. Esophageal cancer. In: Schottenfeld D, Fraumeni JF Jr, editors. Cancer Epidemiology and Prevention. 2nd ed. New York: Oxford University Press; 1996. pp. 681–706.

481. Murphy SE, Carmella SG, Idris AM, Hoffman D. Uptake and metabolism of carcinogenic levels of tobacco-specific nitrosamines by Sudanese snuff dippers. Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers and Prevention. 1994;3(5):423–8. [PubMed]

482. Murray LJ, McCrum EE, Evans AE, Bamford KB. Epidemiology of Helicobacter pylori infection among 4742 randomly selected subjects from Northern Ireland. International Journal of Epidemiology. 1997;26(4):880–7. [PubMed]

483. Muscat JE, Richie JP Jr, Thompson S, Wynder EL. Gender differences in smoking and risk for oral cancer. Cancer Research. 1996;56(22):5192–7. [PubMed]

484. Musicco M, Filippini G, Bordo BM, Melotto A, Morrello G, Berrino F. Gliomas and occupational exposure to carcinogens: case-control study. American Journal of Epidemiology. 1982;116(5):782–90. [PubMed]

485. Nagata C, Shimizu H, Kametani M, Takeyama N, Ohnuma T, Matsushita S. Cigarette smoking, alcohol use, and colorectal adenoma in Japanese men and women. Diseases of the Colon and Rectum. 1999;42(3):337–42. [PubMed]

486. Nagata Y, Abe M, Motoshima K, Nakayama E, Shiku H. Frequent glycine-to-aspartic acid mutations at codon 12 of c-Ki-ras gene in human pancreatic cancer in Japanese. Japanese Journal of Cancer Research. 1990;81(2):135–40. [PMC free article] [PubMed]

487. Nakachi K, Hayashi S, Kawajiri K, Imai K. Association of cigarette smoking and CYP1A1 polymorphisms with adenocarcinoma of the lung by grades of differentiation. Carcinogenesis. 1995;16(9):2209–13.[PubMed]

488. Nakachi K, Imai K, Hayashi S, Kawajiri K. Polymorphisms of the CYP1A1 and glutathione S-transferase genes associated with susceptibility to lung cancer in relation to cigarette dose in a Japanese population. Cancer Research. 1993;53(13):2994–9. [PubMed]

489. Nakachi K, Imai K, Hayashi S, Watanabe J, Kawajiri K. Genetic susceptibility to squamous cell carcinoma of the lung in relation to cigarette smoking dose. Cancer Research. 1991;51(19):5177–80.[PubMed]

490. Nakajima T, Elovaara E, Anttila S, Hirvonen A, Camus AM, Hayes JD, Ketterer B, Vainio H. Expression and polymorphism of glutathione S-transferase in human lungs: risk factors in smoking-related lung cancer. Carcinogenesis. 1995;16(4):707–11. [PubMed]

491. Nakao Y, Yang X, Yokoyama M, Pater MM, Pater A. Malignant transformation of human ectocervical cells immortalized by HPV 18: in vitro model of carcinogenesis by cigarette smoke. Carcinogenesis. 1996;17(3):577–83. [PubMed]

492. Nakazawa H, English D, Randell PL, Nakazawa K, Martel N, Armstrong BK, Yamasaki H. UV and skin cancer: specific p53 gene mutation in normal skin as a biologically relevant exposure measurement. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 1994;91(1):360–4. [PMC free article] [PubMed]

493. Narod SA, Goldgar D, Cannon-Albright L, Weber B, Moslehi R, Ives E, Lenoir G, Lynch H. Risk modifiers in carriers of BRCA1 mutations. International Journal of Cancer. 1995;64(6):394–8. [PubMed]

494. National Cancer Institute.  The FTC Cigarette Test Method for Determining Tar, Nicotine, and Carbon Monoxide Yields of US Cigarettes. Smoking and Tobacco Control Monograph No 7. Bethesda (MD): U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, National Institutes of Health, National Cancer Institute; 1996. NIH Publication No. 96–4028.

495. National Cancer Institute.  Smoking and Tobacco Control Monograph No 8. Bethesda (MD): U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, National Institutes of Health, National Cancer Institute; 1997. Changes in Cigarette-Related Disease Risks and Their Implication for Prevention and Control. NIH Publication No. 97–4213.

496. National Cancer Institute.  Smoking and Tobacco Control Monograph No 13. Bethesda (MD): U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, National Institutes of Health, National Cancer Institute; 2001. Risks Associated with Smoking Cigarettes with Low Machine-Measured Yields of Tar and Nicotine. NIH Publication No. 02–5074.

497. National Research Council.  Health Risks of Radon and Other Internally Deposited Alpha-Emitters: BEIR IV. Washington: National Academy Press; 1988. [PubMed]

498. National Research Council.  Health Effects of Exposure to Low Levels of Ionizing Radiation: BEIR V. Washington: National Academy Press; 1990. 

499. National Research Council.  Comparative Dosimetry of Radon in Mines and Homes. Washington: National Academy Press; 1991. 

500. National Research Council.  Health Effects of Exposure to Radon: BEIR VI. Washington: National Academy Press; 1999. [PubMed]

501. Nazar-Stewart V, Motulsky AG, Eaton DL, White E, Hornung SK, Leng ZT, Stapleton P, Weiss NS. The glutathione S-transferase mu polymorphism as a marker for susceptibility to lung carcinoma. Cancer Research. 1993;53(10 Suppl):2313–8. [PubMed]

502. Nebert DW. Role of genetics and drug metabolism in human cancer risk. Mutation Research. 1991;247(2):267–81. [PubMed]

503. Nelson DE, Kirkendall RS, Lawton RL, Chrismon JH, Merritt RK, Arday DA, Giovino GA. Surveillance for smoking-attributable mortality and years of potential life lost, by state—United States, 1990. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report. 1994;43(SS-1):1–8. [PubMed]

504. Nelson HH, Christiani DC, Mark EJ, Wiencke JK, Wain JC, Kelsey KT. Implications and prognostic value of K-ras mutation for early-stage lung cancer in women. Journal of the National Cancer Institute. 1999;91(23):2032–8. [PubMed]

505. Newcomb PA, Storer BE, Marcus PM. Cigarette smoking in relation to risk of large bowel cancer in women. Cancer Research. 1995;55(21):4906–9. [PubMed]

506. Newcomer LM, Newcomb PA, Trentham-Dietz A, Storer BE. Hormonal risk factors for endometrial cancer: modification by cigarette smoking (United States). Cancer Causes and Control. 2001;12(9):829–35. [PubMed]

507. Nilsen TI, Vatten LJ. A prospective study of lifestyle factors and the risk of pancreatic cancer in Nord-Trondelag, Norway. Cancer Causes and Control. 2000;11(7):645–52. [PubMed]

508. Nobori T, Miura K, Wu DJ, Lois A, Takabayashi K, Carson DA. Deletions of the cyclin-dependent kinase-4 inhibitor gene in multiple human cancers. Nature. 1994;368(6473):753–6. [PubMed]

509. Nomura A. Stomach cancer. In: Schottenfeld D, Fraumeni JF Jr, editors. Cancer Epidemiology and Prevention. 2nd ed. New York: Oxford University Press; 1996. pp. 707–24.

510. Nomura A, Grove JS, Stemmermann GN, Severson RK. A prospective study of stomach cancer and its relation to diet, cigarettes, and alcohol consumption. Cancer Research. 1990;50(3):627–31. [PubMed]

511. Nomura A, Heilbrun LK, Stemmermann GN, Judd HL. Prediagnostic serum hormones and the risk of prostate cancer. Cancer Research. 1988;48(12):3515–7. [PubMed]

512. Nordlund LA, Carstensen JM, Pershagen G. Cancer incidence in female smokers: a 26-year follow-up. International Journal of Cancer. 1997;73(5):625–8. [PubMed]

513. Nyrén O, Bergström R, Nyström L, Engholm G, Ekbom A, Adami H-O, Knutsson A, Stjernberg N. Smoking and colorectal cancer: a 20-year follow-up study of Swedish construction workers. Journal of the National Cancer Institute. 1996;88(18):1302–7. [PubMed]

514. Ochsner A, DeBakey M. Symposium on cancer. Primary pulmonary malignancy. Treatment by total pneumonectomy: analyses of 79 collected cases and presentation of 7 personal cases. Surgery, Gynecology and Obstetrics. 1939;68:435–51.

515. O’Connell DL, Hulka BS, Chambless LE, Wilkinson WE, Deubner DC. Cigarette smoking, alcohol consumption, and breast cancer risk. Journal of the National Cancer Institute. 1987;78(2):229–34. [PubMed]

516. O’Connor HJ, Kanduru C, Bhutta AS, Meehan JM, Feeley KM, Cunnane K. Effect of Helicobacter pylori eradication on peptic ulcer healing. Postgraduate Medical Journal. 1995;71(832):90–3. [PMC free article] [PubMed]

517. Oesch F, Aulmann W, Platt KL, Doerjer G. Individual differences in DNA repair capacities in man. Archives of Toxicology Supplement. 1987;10:172–9. [PubMed]

518. Ogihara A, Kikuchi S, Hasegawa A, Kurosawa M, Miki K, Kaneko E, Mizukoshi H. Relationship between Helicobacter pylori infection and smoking and drinking habits. Journal of Gastroenterology and Hepatology. 2000;15(3):271–6. [PubMed]

519. Ohnishi T, Tomita N, Monden T, Ohue M, Yana I, Takami K, Yamamoto H, Yagyu T, Kikkawa N, Shimano T, Monden M. A detailed analysis of the role of K-ras gene mutation in the progression of colorectal adenoma. British Journal of Cancer. 1997;75(3):341–7.[PMC free article] [PubMed]

520. Okada T, Kawashima K, Fukushi S, Minakuchi T, Nishimura S. Association between a cytochrome P450 CYPIA1 genotype and incidence of lung cancer. Pharmacogenetics. 1994;4(6):333–40.[PubMed]

521. Okamoto A, Hussain SP, Hagiwara K, Spillare EA, Rusin MR, Demetrick DJ, Serrano M, Hannon GJ, Shiseki M, Zariwala M. Mutations in the p16INK4/MTS1/CDKN2, p15INK4B/MTS2, and p18 genes in primary and metastatic lung cancer. Cancer Research. 1995;55(7):1448–51. [PubMed]

522. Olsen J, Kronborg O. Coffee, tobacco and alcohol as risk factors for cancer and adenoma of the large intestine. International Journal of Epidemiology. 1993;22(3):398–402. [PubMed]

523. Oshima A, Tsukuma H, Hiyama T, Fujimoto I, Yamano H, Tanaka M. Follow-up study of HBs Ag-positive blood donors with special reference to effect of drinking and smoking on development of liver cancer. International Journal of Cancer. 1984;34(6):775–9. [PubMed]

524. Osterdahl BG, Slorach S. Tobacco-specific N-nitro-samines in the saliva of habitual male snuff dippers. Food Additives and Contaminants. 1988;5(4):581–6. [PubMed]

525. Paffenbarger RS Jr, Brand RJ, Sholtz RI, Jung DL. Energy expenditure, cigarette smoking, and blood pressure level as related to death from specific diseases. American Journal of Epidemiology. 1978;78(1):12–8.[PubMed]

526. Palli D, Bianchi S, Decarli A, Cipriani F, Avellini C, Cocco P, Falcini F, Puntoni R, Russo A, Vindigni C, Fraumeni JF Jr, Blot WJ, Buiatti E. A case-control study of cancers of the gastric cardia in Italy. British Journal of Cancer. 1992;65(2):263–6. [PMC free article] [PubMed]

527. Palmer JR, Rosenberg L. Cigarette smoking and the risk of breast cancer. Epidemiologic Reviews. 1993;15(1):145–56. [PubMed]

528. Palmer JR, Rosenberg L, Clarke EA, Stolley PD, Warshauer ME, Zauber AG, Shapiro S. Breast cancer and cigarette smoking: a hypothesis. American Journal of Epidemiology. 1991;134(1):1–13.[PubMed]

529. Parker AS, Cerhan JR, Putnam SD, Cantor KP, Lynch LF. A cohort study of farming and risk of prostate cancer in Iowa. Epidemiology. 1999;10(4):452–5. [PubMed]

530. Parkin DM, Pisani P, Ferlay J. Estimates of worldwide incidence of eighteen major cancers in 1985. International Journal of Cancer. 1993;54(4):594–606. [PubMed]

531. Parkin DM, Pisani P, Ferlay J. Estimates of the worldwide incidence of 25 major cancers in 1990. International Journal of Cancer. 1999;80(6):827–41. [PubMed]

532. Parkin DM, Pisani P, Lopez AD, Masuyer E. At least one in seven cases of cancer is caused by smoking: global estimates for 1985. International Journal of Cancer. 1994;59(4):494–504. [PubMed]

533. Partanen TJ, Vainio HU, Ojajarvi IA, Kauppinen TP. Pancreas cancer, tobacco smoking and consumption of alcoholic beverages: a case-control study. Cancer Letters. 1997;116(1):27–32. [PubMed]

534. Partridge M, Pateromichelakis S, Phillips E, Emilion GG, A’Hern RP, Langdon JD. A case-control study confirms that microsatellite assay can identify patients at risk of developing oral squamous cell carcinoma within a field of cancerization. Cancer Research. 2000;60(14):3893–8.[PubMed]

535. Paszkowski T, Clarke RN, Hornstein MD. Smoking induces oxidative stress inside the Graafian follicle. Human Reproduction. 2002;17(4):921–5. [PubMed]

536. Pathak DR, Samet JM, Humble CG, Skipper BJ. Determinants of lung cancer risk in cigarette smokers in New Mexico. Journal of the National Cancer Institute. 1986;76(4):597–604. [PubMed]

537. Peek RM Jr, Vaezi MF, Falk GW, Goldblum JR, Perez-Perez GI, Richter JE, Blaser MJ. Role of Helicobacter pylori cagA(+) strains and specific host immune responses on the development of premalignant and malignant lesions in the gastric cardia. International Journal of Cancer. 1999;82(4):520–4. [PubMed]

538. Peipins LA, Sandler RS. Epidemiology of colorectal adenomas. Epidemiologic Reviews. 1994;16(2):273–97. [PubMed]

539. Peraino C, Fry RJM, Staffeldt E, Kisieleski WE. Effects of varying the exposure to phenobarbital on its enhancement of 2-acetylaminofluorene-induced hepatic tumorigenesis in the rat. Cancer Research. 1973;33(11):2701–5. [PubMed]

540. Perera FP, Estabrook A, Hewer A, Channing K, Rundle A, Mooney LA, Whyatt R, Phillips DH. Carcinogen-DNA adducts in human breast tissue. Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers and Prevention. 1995;4(3):233–8. [PubMed]

541. Perera FP, Poirier MC, Yuspa SH, Nakayama J, Jaretzki A, Curnen MM, Knowles DM, Weinstein IB. A pilot project in molecular cancer epidemiology: determination of benzo[a]pyrene–DNA adducts in animal and human tissues by immunoassays. Carcinogenesis. 1982;3(12):1405–10. [PubMed]

542. Persson I, Johansson I, Ingelman-Sundberg M. In vitro kinetics of two human CYP1A1 variant enzymes suggested to be associated with interindividual differences in cancer susceptibility. Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications. 1997;231(1):227–30.[PubMed]

543. Peters RK, Thomas D, Hagan DG, Mack TM, Henderson BE. Risk factors for invasive cervical cancer among Latinas and non-Latinas in Los Angeles County. Journal of the National Cancer Institute. 1986;77(5):1063–77. [PubMed]

544. Peto R, Darby S, Deo H, Silcocks P, Whitley E, Doll R. Smoking, smoking cessation, and lung cancer in the UK since 1950: combination of national statistics with two case-control studies. British Medical Journal. 2000;321(7257):323–9. [PMC free article] [PubMed]

545. Peto R, Lopez AD, Borehan J, Thun M, Heath C Jr.  Indirect Estimates from National Vital Statistics. New York: Oxford University Press; 1994. Mortality from Smoking in Developed Countries 1950–2000.

546. Petrakis NL, Maack CA, Lee RE, Lyon M. Mutagenic activity in nipple aspirates of human breast fluid [letter] Cancer Research. 1980;40(1):188–9. [PubMed]

547. Pfohl-Leszkowicz A, Grosse Y, Carrière V, Cugnenc P-H, Berger A, Carnot F, Beaune P, de Waziers I. High levels of DNA adducts in human colon are associated with colorectal cancer. Cancer Research. 1995;55(23):5611–6. [PubMed]

548. Phillips DH, Hewer A, Martin CN, Garner RC, King MM. Correlation of DNA adduct levels in human lung with cigarette smoking. Nature. 1988;336(6201):790–2. [PubMed]

549. Phillips DH, Shé MN. DNA adducts in cervical tissue of smokers and non-smokers. Mutation Research. 1994;313(2–3):277–84. [PubMed]

550. Phillips RW, Wong RK. Barrett’s esophagus: natural history, incidence, etiology, and complications. Gastroenterology Clinics of North America. 1991;20(4):791–816. [PubMed]

551. Phull PS, Price AB, Thorniley MS, Green CJ, Jacyna MR. Plasma free radical activity and antioxidant vitamin levels in dyspeptic patients: correlation with smoking and Helicobacter pylori infection. European Journal of Gastroenterology and Hepatology. 1998;10(7):573–8.[PubMed]

552. Pierce JP, Fiore MC, Novotny TE, Hatziandreu EJ, Davis RM. Trends in cigarette smoking in the United States: projections to the year 2000. Journal of the American Medical Association. 1989;261(1):61–5.[PubMed]

553. Pike MC, Ross RK, Spicer DV. Problems involved in including women with simple hysterectomy in epidemiologic studies measuring the effects of hormone replacement therapy on breast cancer risk. American Journal of Epidemiology. 1998;147(8):718–21. [PubMed]

554. Pisani P, Parkin DM, Bray F, Ferlay J. Estimates of the worldwide mortality from 25 cancers in 1990. International Journal of Cancer. 1999;83(1):18–29. [PubMed]

555. Platz EA, Rimm EB, Willett WC, Kantoff PW, Giovannucci E. Racial variation in prostate cancer incidence and in hormonal system markers among male health professionals. Journal of the National Cancer Institute. 2000;92(24):2009–17. [PubMed]

556. Polychronopoulou A, Tzonou A, Hsieh C-C, Kaprinis G, Rebelakos A, Toupadaki N, Trichopoulos D. Reproductive variables, tobacco, ethanol, coffee and somatometry as risk factors for ovarian cancer. International Journal of Cancer. 1993;55(3):402–7. [PubMed]

557. Potter JD. Colorectal cancer: molecules and populations. Journal of the National Cancer Institute. 1999;91(11):916–32. [PubMed]

558. Potter JD, Bigler J, Fosdick L, Bostick RM, Kampman E, Chen C, Louis TA, Grambsch P. Colorectal adenomatous and hyperplastic polyps: smoking and N-Acetyltransferase 2 polymorphisms. Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers and Prevention. 1999;8(1):69–75. [PubMed]

559. Potter JD, Cerhan JR, Sellers TA, McGovern PG, Drinkard C, Kushi LR, Folsom AR. Progesterone and estrogen receptors and mammary neoplasia in the Iowa Women’s Health Study: how many kinds of breast cancer are there? Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers and Prevention. 1995;4(4):319–26. [PubMed]

560. Powell SM. Stomach cancer. In: Vogelstein B, Kinzler KW, editors. The Genetic Basis of Human Cancer. New York: McGraw-Hill; 1998. pp. 647–52.

561. Powell SM, Zilz N, Beazer-Barclay Y, Bryan TM, Hamilton SR, Thibodeau SN, Vogelstein B, Kinzler KW. APC mutations occur early during colorectal tumorigenesis. Nature. 1992;359(6392):235–7.[PubMed]

562. Preston-Martin S, Mack WJ. Neoplasms of the nervous system. In: Schottenfeld D, Fraumeni JF Jr, editors. Cancer Epidemiology and Prevention. 2nd ed. New York: Oxford University Press; 1996. pp. 1231–81.

563. Prevo LJ, Sanchez CA, Galipeau PC, Reid BJ. p53-Mutant clones and field effects in Barrett’s esophagus. Cancer Research. 1999;59(19):4784–7. [PubMed]

564. Primic-Zakelj M, Evstifeeva T, Ravnihar B, Boyle P. Breast-cancer risk and oral contraceptive use in Slovenian women aged 25 to 54. International Journal of Cancer. 1995;62(4):414–20. [PubMed]

565. Prokopcyzk B, Cox JE, Hoffmann D, Waggoner SE. Identification of tobacco-specific carcinogen in the cervical mucus of smokers and nonsmokers. Journal of the National Cancer Institute. 1997;89(12):868–73. [PubMed]

566. Purdie D, Green A, Bain C, Siskind V, Ward B, Hacker N, Quinn M, Wright G, Russell P, Susil B. Reproductive and other factors and risk of epithelial ovarian cancer: an Australian case-control study. International Journal of Cancer. 1995;62(6):678–84. [PubMed]

567. Rakowski W, Clark MA, Ehrich B. Smoking and cancer screening for women ages 42–75: associations in the 1990–1994 National Health Interview Surveys. Preventive Medicine. 1999;29(6 Pt 1):487–95.[PubMed]

568. Randerath E, Miller RH, Mittal D, Avitts TA, Dunsford HA, Randerath K. Covalent DNA damage in tissues of cigarette smokers as determined by 32P-postlabeling assay. Journal of the National Cancer Institute. 1989;81(5):341–7. [PubMed]

569. Raunio H, Husgafvel-Pursiainen K, Anttila S, Hietanen E, Hirvonen A, Pelkonen O. Diagnosis of polymorphisms in carcinogen-activating and inactivating enzymes and cancer susceptibility—a review. Gene. 1995;159(1):113–21. [PubMed]

570. Rebbeck TR. Molecular epidemiology of the human glutathione S-transferase genotypes GSTM1 and GSTT1 in cancer susceptibility. Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers and Prevention. 1997;6(9):733–43.[PubMed]

571. Reed AL, Califano J, Cairns P, Westra WH, Jones RM, Koch W, Ahrendt S, Eby Y, Sewell D, Nawroz H, Bartek J, Sidransky D. High frequency of p16 (CDKN2/MTS-1/INK4A) inactivation in head and neck squamous cell carcinoma. Cancer Research. 1996;56(16):3630–3.[PubMed]

572. Richardson S, de Vincenzi I, Pujol H, Gerber M. Alcohol consumption in a case-control study of breast cancer in southern France. International Journal of Cancer. 1989;44(1):84–9. [PubMed]

573. Ries LAG, Eisner MP, Kosary CL, Hankey BF, Miller BA, Clegg L, Edwards BK.  SEER Cancer Statistics Review, 1973–1997. Bethesda (MD): U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, National Institutes of Health, National Cancer Institute; 2000a. 

574. Ries LAG, Eisner MP, Kosary CL, Hankey BF, Miller BA, Clegg L, Mariotto A, Fay MP, Feuer EJ, Edwards BK, editors. SEER Cancer Statistics Review, 1975–2000. [accessed: July 31, 2003].  http://www?.seer.cancer?.gov/csr/1975_2000/

575. Ries LAG, Kosary CL, Hankey BF, Miller BA, Edwards BK, editors. SEER Cancer Statistics Review, 1973–1996. Bethesda (MD): U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, National Institutes of Health, National Cancer Institute; 1999. 

576. Ries LAG, Wingo PA, Miller DS, Howe HL, Weir HK, Rosenberg HM, Vernon SW, Cronin K, Edwards BK. The annual report to the nation on the status of cancer, 1973–1997, with a special section on colorectal cancer. Cancer. 2000b;88(10):2398–424. [PubMed]

577. Rimington J. The effect of filters on the incidence of lung cancer in cigarette smokers. Environmental Research. 1981;24(1):162–6.[PubMed]

578. Rivenson A, Hoffmann D, Prokopczyk B, Amin S, Hecht SS. Induction of lung and exocrine pancreas tumors in F344 rats by tobacco-specific and Areca-derived N-nitrosamines. Cancer Research. 1988;48(23):6912–7. [PubMed]

579. Robert V, Michel P, Flaman JM, Chiron A, Martin C, Charbonnier F, Paillot B, Frebourg T. High frequency in esophageal cancers of p53 alterations inactivating the regulation of genes involved in cell cycle and apoptosis. Carcinogenesis. 2000;21(4):563–5. [PubMed]

580. Rodriguez C, Tatham LM, Thun MJ, Calle EE, Heath CW Jr. Smoking and fatal prostate cancer in a large cohort of adult men. American Journal of Epidemiology. 1997;145(5):466–75. [PubMed]

581. Rogot E, Murray JL. Smoking and causes of death among U.S. veterans: 16 years of observation. Public Health Reports. 1980;95(3):213–22. [PMC free article] [PubMed]

582. Rohan TE, Baron JA. Cigarette smoking and breast cancer. American Journal of Epidemiology. 1989;129(1):36–42. [PubMed]

583. Rohan TE, McMichael AJ. Alcohol consumption and risk of breast cancer. International Journal of Cancer. 1988;41(5):695–9. [PubMed]

584. Rookus MA, van Leeuwen FE. Oral contraceptives and risk of breast cancer in women aged 20–54 years: Netherlands Oral Contraceptives and Breast Cancer Study Group. Lancet. 1994;344(8926):844–51.[PubMed]

585. Rosai J.  Ackerman’s Surgical Pathology. St. Louis: Mosby; 1996. Large bowel; pp. 729–99.

586. Rosell R, Li S, Skacel Z, Mate JL, Maestre J, Canela M, Tolosa E, Armengol P, Banadas A, Ariza A. Prognostic impact of mutated K-ras gene in surgically resected non-small cell lung cancer patients. Oncogene. 1993;8(9):2407–12. [PubMed]

587. Rosell R, Monzo M, Molina F, Martinez E, Pifarre A, Moreno I, Mate JL, de Anta JM, Sanchez M, Font A. K-ras genotypes and prognosis in non-small-cell lung cancer. Annals of Oncology. 1995;6(Suppl 3):S15–S20. [PubMed]

588. Rosenberg L, Palmer JR, Miller DR, Clarke EA, Shapiro S. A case-control study of alcoholic beverage consumption and breast cancer. American Journal of Epidemiology. 1990;131(1):6–14. [PubMed]

589. Rosenberg L, Schwingl PJ, Kaufman DW, Miller DR, Helmrich SP, Stolley PD, Schottenfeld D, Shapiro S. Breast cancer and cigarette smoking. New England Journal of Medicine. 1984;310(2):92–4.[PubMed]

590. Rosin MP, Cheng X, Poh C, Lam WL, Huang Y, Lovas J, Berean K, Epstein JB, Priddy R, Le ND, Zhang L. Use of allelic loss to predict malignant risk for low-grade oral epithelial dysplasia. Clinical Cancer Research. 2000;6(2):357–62. [PubMed]

591. Ross RK, Bernstein L, Paganini-Hill A, Henderson BE. Effects of cigarette smoking on ‘hormone-related’ diseases in a Southern California retirement community. In: Wald N, Baron J, editors. Smoking and Hormone-related Disorders. New York: Oxford University Press; 1990. pp. 32–54.

592. Ross RK, Schottenfeld D. Prostate cancer. In: Schottenfeld D, Fraumeni JF Jr, editors. Cancer Epidemiology and Prevention. New York: Oxford University Press; 1996. pp. 1180–206.

593. Ross RK, Shimizu H, Paganini-Hill A, Honda G, Henderson BE. Case-control studies of prostate cancer in blacks and whites in southern California. Journal of the National Cancer Institute. 1987;78(5):869–74.[PubMed]

594. Rossing MA, Stanford JL, Weiss NS, Habel LA. Oral contraceptive use and risk of breast cancer in middle-aged women. American Journal of Epidemiology. 1996;144(2):161–4. [PubMed]

595. Rothman N. Genetic susceptibility biomarkers in studies of occupational and environmental cancer: methodologic issues. Toxicology Letters. 1995;77(1–3):221–5. [PubMed]

596. Rotterdam H. Carcinoma of the stomach. In: Rotterdam H, Enterline HT, editors. Pathology of the Stomach and Duodenum. New York: Springer-Verlag; 1989. pp. 142–204.

597. Routledge MN, Garner RC, Jenkins D, Cuzick J. 32P-postlabelling analysis of DNA from human tissues. Mutation Research. 1992;282(3):139–45. [PubMed]

598. Rudiger HW, Nowak D, Hartmann K, Cerutti P. Enhanced formation of benzo[a]pyrene: DNA adducts in monocytes of patients with a presumed predisposition to lung cancer. Cancer Research. 1985;45(11 Pt 2):5890–4. [PubMed]

599. Rusin MR, Okamoto A, Chorazy M, Czyzewski K, Harasim J, Spillare EA, Hagiwara K, Hussain SP, Xiong Y, Demetrick DJ, Harris CC. Intragenic mutations of the p16INK4, p15INK4B and p18 genes in primary non-small cell lung cancers. International Journal of Cancer. 1996;65(6):734–9. [PubMed]

600. Russo A, Eboli M, Pizzetti P, Di Felice G, Ravagnani F, Spinelli P, Hotz AM, Notti P, Maconi G, Franceschi S, Ferrari D, Bertario L. Determinants of Helicobacter pylori seroprevalence among Italian blood donors. European Journal of Gastroenterology and Hepatology. 1999;11(8):867–73. [PubMed]

601. Ryan P, Lee MW, North JB, McMichael AJ. Risk factors for tumors of the brain and meninges: results from the Adelaide Adult Brain Tumor Study. International Journal of Cancer. 1992;51(1):20–7. [PubMed]

602. Saha SK. Smoking habits and carcinoma of the stomach: a case-control study. Japanese Journal of Cancer Research. 1991;82(5):497–502.[PMC free article] [PubMed]

603. Samet JM, editor. Epidemiology of Lung Cancer. New York: Marcel Dekker; 1994. 

604. Samet JM.  National Cancer Institute. The FTC Cigarette Test Method for Determining Tar, Nicotine, and Carbon Monoxide Yields of US Cigarettes. Report of the NCI Expert Committee Smoking and Tobacco Control Monograph No 7. Bethesda (MD): U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, National Institutes of Heath, National Cancer Institute; 1996. The changing cigarette and disease risk: current status of the evidence; pp. 77–92. NIH Publication No. 96–4028.

605. Samet JM, Cohen AJ. Air pollution and lung cancer. In: Holgate ST, Samet JM, Koren HS, Maynard RL, editors. Air Pollution and Health.San Diego (CA): Academic Press; 1999. pp. 841–64.

606. Sanchez-Cespedes M, Reed AL, Buta M, Wu L, Westra WH, Herman JG, Yang SC, Jen J, Sidransky D. Inactivation of the INK4A/ARF locus frequently coexists with TP53 mutations in non-small cell lung cancer. Oncogene. 1999;18(43):5843–9. [PubMed]

607. Sandler DP, Shore DL, Anderson JR, Davey FR, Arthur D, Mayer RJ, Silver RT, Weiss RB, Moore JO, Schiffer CA, Wurster-Hill DH, McIntyre OR, Bloomfield CD. Cigarette smoking and risk of acute leukemia: associations with morphology and cytogenetic abnormalities in bone marrow. Journal of the National Cancer Institute. 1993a;85(24):1994–2003. [PubMed]

608. Sandler RS, Lyles CM, McAuliffe C, Woosley JT, Kupper LL. Cigarette smoking, alcohol, and the risk of colorectal adenomas. Gastroenterology. 1993b;104(5):1445–51. [PubMed]

609. Sankaranarayanan R, Duffy SW, Nair MK, Padma-kumary G, Day NE. Tobacco and alcohol as risk factors in cancer of the larynx in Kerala, India. International Journal of Cancer. 1990;45(5):879–82. [PubMed]

610. Saracci R, Boffetta P. Interactions of tobacco smoking with other causes of lung cancer. In: Samet JM, editor. Epidemiology of Lung Cancer.New York: Marcel Dekker; 1994. pp. 465–93.

611. Schatzkin A, Carter CL, Green SB, Kreger BE, Splansky GL, Anderson KM, Helsel WE, Kannel WB. Is alcohol consumption related to breast cancer: results from the Framingham Heart Study. Journal of the National Cancer Institute. 1989;81(1):31–5. [PubMed]

612. Schechter MT, Miller AB, Howe GR, Baines CJ, Craib KJP, Wall C. Cigarette smoking and breast cancer: case-control studies of prevalent and incident cancer in the Canadian National Breast Screening Study. American Journal of Epidemiology. 1989;130(2):213–20. [PubMed]

613. Schildt E-B, Eriksson M, Hardell L, Magnuson A. Oral snuff, smoking habits and alcohol consumption in relation to oral cancer in a Swedish case-control study. International Journal of Cancer. 1998;77(3):341–6.[PubMed]

614. Schlecht NF, Franco EL, Pintos J, Kowalski LP. Effect of smoking cessation and tobacco type on the risk of cancers of the upper aero-digestive tract in Brazil. Epidemiology. 1999a;10(4):412–8. [PubMed]

615. Schlecht NF, Franco EL, Pintos J, Negassa A, Kowalski LP, Oliveira BV, Curado MP. Interaction between tobacco and alcohol consumption and the risk of cancers of the upper aero-digestive tract in Brazil. American Journal of Epidemiology. 1999b;150(11):1129–37. [PubMed]

616. Schulte PA, Perera FP, editors. Molecular Epidemiology: Principles and Practices. New York: Academic Press; 1993. pp. 4–36.

617. Severson RK. Cigarette smoking and leukemia. Cancer. 1987;60(2):141–4. [PubMed]

618. Severson RK, Davis S, Heuser L, Daling JR, Thomas DB. Cigarette smoking and acute nonlymphocytic leukemia. American Journal of Epidemiology. 1990;132(3):418–22. [PubMed]

619. Severson RK, Nomura AMY, Grove JS, Stemmermann GN. A prospective study of demographics, diet, and prostate cancer among men of Japanese ancestry in Hawaii. Cancer Research. 1989;49(7):1857–60. [PubMed]

620. Shapiro JA, Jacobs EJ, Thun MJ. Cigar smoking in men and risk of death from tobacco-related cancers. Journal of the National Cancer Institute. 2000;92(4):333–7. [PubMed]

621. Shen Q, Liu SF, Dawsey SM, Cao J, Zhou B, Wang DY, Cao SG, Zhao HZ, Li GY, Taylor PR, Guo WD, Liu FS, Blot WJ, Li JY, Li B. Cytologic screening for esophageal cancer: results from 12,877 subjects from a high-risk population in China. International Journal of Cancer. 1993;54(2):185–8. [PubMed]

622. Shi ST, Yang G-Y, Wang L-D, Xue Z, Feng B, Ding W, Xing EP, Yang CS. Role of p53 mutations in human esophageal carcinogenesis: results from immuno-histochemical and mutation analyses of carcinomas and nearby non-cancerous lesions. Carcinogenesis. 1999;20(4):591–7.[PubMed]

623. Shiao YH, Rice JM, Anderson LM, Diwan BA, Hard GC. von Hippel-Lindau gene mutations in N-nitrosodimethylamine-induced rat renal epithelial tumors. Journal of the National Cancer Institute. 1998;90(22):1720–3. [PubMed]

624. Shibata A, Hirohata T, Toshima H, Tashiro H. The role of drinking and cigarette smoking in the excess deaths from liver cancer. Japanese Journal of Cancer Research. 1986;77(3):287–95. [PubMed]

625. Shibata A, Mack TM, Paganini-Hill A, Ross RK, Henderson BE. A prospective study of pancreatic cancer in the elderly. International Journal of Cancer. 1994;58(1):46–9. [PubMed]

626. Shields PG, Bowman ED, Harrington AM, Doan VT, Weston A. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon-DNA adducts in human lung and cancer susceptibility genes. Cancer Research. 1993;53(15):3486–92.[PubMed]

627. Shields PG, Harris CC. Cancer risk and low-penetrance susceptibility genes in gene-environment interactions. Journal of Clinical Oncology. 2000;18(11):2309–15. [PubMed]

628. Shinchi K, Ishii H, Imanishi K, Kono S. Relationship of cigarette smoking, alcohol use, and dietary habits with Helicobacter pyloriinfection in Japanese men. Scandinavian Journal of Gastroenterology. 1997;32(7):651–5. [PubMed]

629. Sidney S, Tekawa IS, Friedman GD. A prospective study of cigarette tar yield and lung cancer. Cancer Causes and Control. 1993;4(1):3–10.[PubMed]

630. Sidransky D. Molecular biology of head and neck tumors. Cancer: Principles & Practice of Oncology. In: DeVita VT Jr, Hellman S, Rosenberg SA, editors. 6th ed. Baltimore (MD): Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 2001. pp. 789–96.

631. Siegel M. Smoking and leukemia: evaluation of a causal hypothesis. American Journal of Epidemiology. 1993;138(1):1–9. [PubMed]

632. Silini EM, Bosi F, Pellegata NS, Volpato G, Romano A, Nazari S, Tinelli C, Ranzani GN, Solcia E, Fiocca R. K-ras gene mutations: an unfavorable prognostic marker in stage I lung adenocarcinoma. Virchows Archive. 1994;424(4):367–73. [PubMed]

633. Silverman S Jr.  Oral Cancer. Hamilton (Canada): BC Decker; 1998. Leukoplakia and erythroplasia; pp. 25–40.

634. Silverman DT, Dunn JA, Hoover RN, Schiffman M, Lillemoe KD, Schoenberg JB, Brown LM, Greenberg RS, Hayes RB, Swanson GM. Cigarette smoking and pancreas cancer: a case-control study based on direct interviews. Journal of the National Cancer Institute. 1994;86(20):1510–6. [PubMed]

635. Silverman DT, Morrison AS, Devasa SS. Bladder cancer. In: Schottenfeld D, Fraumeni JF Jr, editors. Cancer Epidemiology and Prevention. New York: Oxford University Press; 1996. pp. 1156–79.

636. Simons AM, Phillips DH, Coleman DV. DNA adduct assay in cervical epithelium. Diagnostic Cytopathology. 1994;10(3):284–8. [PubMed]

637. Siskind V, Schofield F, Rice D, Bain C. Breast cancer and breastfeeding: results from an Australian case-control study. American Journal of Epidemiology. 1989;130(2):229–36. [PubMed]

638. Slattery ML, Potter JD, Friedman GD, Ma K-N, Edwards S. Tobacco use and colon cancer. International Journal of Cancer. 1997;70(3):259–64. [PubMed]

639. Slattery ML, Potter JD, Samowitz W, Bigler J, Caan B, Leppert M. NAT2, GSTM-1, cigarette smoking, and risk of colon cancer. Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers and Prevention. 1998;7(12):1079–84.[PubMed]

640. Slebos RJ, Kibbelaar RE, Dalesio O, Kooistra A, Stam J, Meijer CJ, Wagenaar SS, Vanderschueren RG, van Zandwijk N, Mooi WJ. K-ras oncogene activation as a prognostic marker in adenocarcinoma of the lung. New England Journal of Medicine. 1990;323(9):561–5. [PubMed]

641. Smith ER, Hagopian M. Uptake and secretion of carcinogenic chemicals by the dog and rat prostate. In: Murphy GP, Sandberg AA, Karr JP, editors. The Prostatic Cell: Structure and Function. Part B: Prolactin, Carcinogenesis, and Clinical Aspects. New York: Alan R. Liss; 1981. pp. 131–63.

642. Smith JL, Hodges RE. Serum levels of vitamin C in relation to dietary and supplement intake of vitamin C in smokers and nonsmokers. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences. 1987;498:144–52.[PubMed]

643. Smith SJ, Deacon JM, Chilvers CED. Alcohol, smoking, passive smoking and caffeine in relation to breast cancer risk in young women: UK National Case-Control Study Group. British Journal of Cancer. 1994;70(1):112–9. [PMC free article] [PubMed]

644. Sneyd MJ, Paul C, Spears GF, Skegg DC. Alcohol consumption and risk of breast cancer. International Journal of Cancer. 1991;48(6):812–5.[PubMed]

645. Spitz MR, Fueger JJ, Newell GR, Keating MJ. Leukemia and cigarette smoking. Cancer Causes and Control. 1990;1(2):195–6. [PubMed]

646. Stellman SD, Garfinkel L. Lung cancer risk is proportional to cigarette tar yield: evidence from a prospective study. Preventive Medicine. 1989;18(4):518–25. [PubMed]

647. Stellman SD, Muscat JE, Thompson S, Hoffman D, Wynder EL. Risk of squamous cell carcinoma and adenocarcinoma of the lung in relation to lifetime filter cigarette smoking. Cancer. 1997;80(3):382–8.[PubMed]

648. Stemhagen A, Slade J, Altman R, Bill J. Occupational risk factors and liver cancer: a retrospective case-control study of primary liver cancer in New Jersey. American Journal of Epidemiology. 1983;117(4):443–54. [PubMed]

649. Stich HF, Parida BB, Brunnemann KD. Localized formation of micronuclei in the oral mucosa and tobacco-specific nitrosamines in the saliva of “reverse” smokers, Khaini-tobacco chewers and gudakhu users. International Journal of Cancer. 1992;50(2):172–6. [PubMed]

650. Stockwell HG, Lyman GH. Cigarette smoking and the risk of female reproductive cancer. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology. 1987;157(1):35–40. [PubMed]

651. Stolzenberg-Solomon RZ, Pietinen P, Barrett MJ, Taylor PR, Virtamo J, Albanes D. Dietary and other methyl-group availability factors and pancreatic cancer risk in a cohort of male smokers. American Journal of Epidemiology. 2001;153(7):680–7. [PubMed]

652. Stratton K, Shetty P, Wallace R, Bonderant S, editors. Clearing the Smoke: Assessing the Science Base for Tobacco Harm Reduction.Washington: National Academy Press; 2001. [PubMed]

653. Struewing JP, Hartge P, Wacholder S, Baker SM, Berlin M, McAdams M, Timmerman MM, Brody LC, Tucker MA. The risk of cancer associated with specific mutations of BRCA1 and BRCA2 among Ashkenazi Jews. New England Journal of Medicine. 1997;336(20):1401–8. [PubMed]

654. Stryker WS, Kaplan LA, Stein EA, Stampfer MJ, Sober A, Willett WC. The relation of diet, cigarette smoking, and alcohol consumption to plasma beta-carotene and alpha-tocopherol levels. American Journal of Epidemiology. 1988;127(2):283–96. [PubMed]

655. Stürmer T, Glynn RJ, Lee I-M, Christen WG, Hennekens CH. Lifetime cigarette smoking and colorectal cancer incidence in the Physicians’ Health Study I. Journal of the National Cancer Institute. 2000;92(14):1178–81. [PubMed]

656. Sugio K, Ishida T, Yokoyama H, Inoue T, Sugimachi K, Sasazuki T. Ras gene mutations as a prognostic marker in adenocarcinoma of the human lung without lymph node metastasis. Cancer Research. 1992;52(10):2903–6. [PubMed]

657. Sundaresan V, Ganly P, Hasleton P, Rudd R, Sinha G, Bleehen NM, Rabbitts P. P53 and chromosome 3 abnormalities, characteristic of malignant lung tumours, are detectable in preinvasive lesions of the bronchus. Oncogene. 1992;7(10):1989–97. [PubMed]

658. Swanson CA, Coates RJ, Malone KE, Gammon MD, Schoenberg JB, Brogan DJ, McAdams M, Potischman N, Hoover RN, Brinton LA. Alcohol consumption and breast cancer risk among women under age 45 years. Epidemiology. 1997;8(3):231–7. [PubMed]

659. Tahara E. Genetic alterations in human gastrointestinal cancers: the application to molecular diagnosis. Cancer. 1995;75(6 Suppl):1410–7.[PubMed]

660. Talamini R, Franceschi S, La Vecchia C, Serraino D, Barra S, Negri E. Diet and prostatic cancer: a case-control study in northern Italy. Nutrition and Cancer. 1992;18(3):277–86. [PubMed]

661. Tanaka K, Hirohata T, Takeshita S, Hirohata I, Koga S, Sugimachi K, Kanematsu T, Ohryohji F, Ishibashi H. Hepatitis B virus, cigarette smoking and alcohol consumption in the development of hepatocellular carcinoma: a case-control study in Fukuoka, Japan. International Journal of Cancer. 1992;51(4):509–14. [PubMed]

662. Tang J-L, Morris JK, Wald NJ, Hole D, Shipley M, Tunstall-Pedoe H. Mortality in relation to tar yield of cigarettes: a prospective study of four cohorts. British Medical Journal. 1995;311(7019):1530–3. [PMC free article] [PubMed]

663. Tavani A, Negri E, Franceschi S, Barbone F, La Vecchia C. Attributable risk for laryngeal cancer in northern Italy. Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers and Prevention. 1994;3(2):121–5. [PubMed]

664. Terry MB, Neugut AI. Cigarette smoking and the colorectal adenoma-carcinoma sequence: a hypothesis to explain the paradox. American Journal of Epidemiology. 1998;147(10):903–10. [PubMed]

665. Terry P, Ekbom A, Lichtenstein P, Feychting M, Wolk A. Long-term tobacco smoking and colorectal cancer in a prospective cohort study. International Journal of Cancer. 2001;91(4):585–7. [PubMed]

666. Terry PD, Miller AB, Rohan TE. A prospective cohort study of cigarette smoking and the risk of endometrial cancer. British Journal of Cancer. 2002;86(9):1430–5. [PMC free article] [PubMed]

667. Terry PD, Rohan TE. Cigarette smoking and the risk of breast cancer in women: a review of the literature. Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers and Prevention. 2002;11(10 Pt 1):953–71. [PubMed]

668. Thiberville L, Payne P, Vielkinds J, LeRiche J, Horsman D, Nouvet G, Palcic B, Lam S. Evidence of cumulative gene losses with progression of premalignant epithelial lesions to carcinoma of the bronchus. Cancer Research. 1995;55(22):5133–9. [PubMed]

669. Thibodeau SN, French AJ, Cunningham JM, Tester D, Burgart LJ, Roche PC, McDonnell SK, Schaid DJ, Vockley CW, Michels VV, Farr GH Jr, O’Connell MJ. Microsatellite instability in colorectal cancer: different mutator phenotypes and the principal involvement of hMLH1. Cancer Research. 1998;58(8):1713–8. [PubMed]

670. Thomas DB, Gao DL, Self SG, Allison CJ, Tao Y, Mahloch J, Ray R, Qin Q, Presley R, Porter P. Randomized trial of breast self-examination in Shanghai: methodology and preliminary results. Journal of the National Cancer Institute. 1997;89(5):355–65. [PubMed]

671. Thomas DB, Karagas MR. Cancer in first and second generation Americans. Cancer Research. 1987;47(21):5771–6. [PubMed]

672. Thomas DB, Noonan EA. Breast cancer and prolonged lactation: the WHO Collaborative Study of Neoplasia and Steroid Contraceptives. International Journal of Epidemiology. 1993;22(4):619–26. [PubMed]

673. Thomas EJ, Edridge W, Weddell A, McGill A, Mc-Garrigle HHG. The impact of cigarette smoking on the plasma concentration of gonadotrophins, ovarian steroids and androgens and upon the metabolism of oestrogens in the human female. Human Reproduction. 1993;8(8):1187–93. [PubMed]

674. Thompson MM, Garland C, Barrett-Connor E, Khaw KT, Friedlander NJ, Wingard DL. Heart disease risk factors, diabetes, and prostatic cancer in an adult community. American Journal of Epidemiology. 1989;129(3):511–7. [PubMed]

675. Thun MJ, Calle EE, Namboodiri MM, Flanders WD, Coates RJ, Byers T, Boffetta P, Garfinkel L, Heath CW Jr. Risk factors for fatal colon cancer in a large prospective study. Journal of the National Cancer Institute. 1992;84(19):1491–500. [PubMed]

676. Thun MJ, Day-Lally CA, Calle EE, Flanders WD, Heath CW Jr. Excess mortality among cigarette smokers: changes in a 20-year interval. American Journal of Public Health. 1995;85(9):1223–30. [PMC free article] [PubMed]

677. Thun MJ, Day-Lally C, Myers DG, Calle EE, Flanders WD, Zhu B-P, Namboodiri MM, Heath CW Jr. Trends in tobacco smoking and mortality from cigarette use in Cancer Prevention Studies I (1959 through 1965) and II (1982 through 1988). In: Shopland DR, Burns DM, Garfinkel L, Samet JM, editors. Changes in Cigarette-Related Disease Risks and Their Implication for Prevention and Control. Smoking and Tobacco Control Monograph No 8. Rockville (MD): U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, National Institutes of Health, National Cancer Institute; 1997a. pp. 305–82. NIH Publication No. 97–4213.

678. Thun MJ, Lally CA, Flannery JT, Calle EE, Flanders WD, Heath CW Jr. Cigarette smoking and changes in the histopathology of lung cancer. Journal of the National Cancer Institute. 1997b;89(21):1580–6.[PubMed]

679. Thune I, Lund E. Physical activity and the risk of prostate and testicular cancer: a cohort study of 53,000 Norwegian men. Cancer Causes and Control. 1994;5(6):549–56. [PubMed]

680. Tobacco Yearbook.  U.S. cigarette consumption, 1900 to date. Bowling Green (KY): The Kentucky Farmer; 1981. 

681. Tokuhata GK, Lilienfeld AM. Familial aggregation of lung cancer in humans. Journal of the National Cancer Institute. 1963;30(2):289–312.[PubMed]

682. Tonin P, Ghadirian P, Phelan C, Lenoir GM, Lynch HT, Letendre F, Belanger D, Monté M, Narod SA. A large multisite cancer family is linked to BRCA2. Journal of Medical Genetics. 1995;32(12):982–4.[PMC free article] [PubMed]

683. Travis WD, Travis LB, Devesa SS. Lung cancer. Cancer. 1995;75(1 Suppl):191–202. [PubMed]

684. Trédaniel J, Boffetta P, Buiatti E, Saracci R, Hirsch A. Tobacco smoking and gastric cancer: review and meta-analysis. International Journal of Cancer. 1997;72(4):565–73. [PubMed]

685. Trichopoulos D, Brown J, MacMahon B. Urine estrogens and breast cancer risk factors among post-menopausal women. International Journal of Cancer. 1987a;40(6):721–5. [PubMed]

686. Trichopoulos D, Day NE, Kaklamani E, Tzonou A, Muñoz N, Zavitsanos X, Koumantaki Y, Tricho-poulou A. Hepatitis B virus, tobacco smoking and ethanol consumption in the etiology of hepatocellular carcinoma. International Journal of Cancer. 1987b;39(1):45–9. [PubMed]

687. Trichopoulos D, MacMahon B, Sparros L, Merikas G. Smoking and hepatitis B-negative primary hepato-cellular carcinoma. Journal of the National Cancer Institute. 1980;65(1):111–4. [PubMed]

688. Troisi RJ, Freedman AN, Devesa SS. Incidence of colorectal carcinoma in the U.S.: an update of trends by gender, race, age, subsite, and stage, 1975–1994. Cancer. 1999;85(8):1670–6. [PubMed]

689. Tselepis C, Perry I, Jankowski J. Barrett’s esophagus: dysregulation of cell cycling and intercellular adhesion in the metaplasia-dysplasia-carcinoma sequence. Digestion. 2000;61(1):1–5. [PubMed]

690. Tsugane S, Tei Y, Takahashi T, Watanabe S, Sugano K. Salty food intake and risk of Helicobacter pylori infection. Japanese Journal of Cancer Research. 1994;85(5):474–8. [PMC free article] [PubMed]

691. Tu JT, Gao RN, Zhang DH, Giu BC. Hepatitis B virus and primary liver cancer on Chongming Island, People’s Republic of China. National Cancer Institute Monograph. 1985;69:213–5. [PubMed]

692. Tulinius H, Sigfusson N, Sigvaldason H, Bjarnadottir K, Tryggvadottir L. Risk factors for malignant diseases: a cohort study on a population of 22,946 Icelanders. Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers and Prevention. 1997;6(11):863–73. [PubMed]

693. Tuyns AJ, Estève J, Raymond L, Berrino F, Benhamou E, Blanchet F, Boffetta P, Crosignani P, del Moral A, Lehmann W, Merletti F, Péquignot G, Riboli E, Sancho-Garnier H, Terracini B, Zubiri A, Zubiri L. Cancer of the larynx/hypopharynx, tobacco and alcohol: IARC international case-control study in Turin and Varese (Italy), Zaragoza and Navarra (Spain), Geneva (Switzerland) and Calvados (France). International Journal of Cancer. 1988;41(4):483–91. [PubMed]

694. Tverdal A, Thelle D, Stensvold I, Leren P, Bjartveit K. Mortality in relation to smoking history: 13 years’ follow-up of 68,000 Norwegian men and women 35– 49 years. Journal of Clinical Epidemiology. 1993;46(5):475–87. [PubMed]

695. U.S. Department of Agriculture.  Tobacco: Situation and Outlook Report. Washington: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service; 1996. TBS-234.

696. US Department of Health and Human Services.  The Health Consequences of Smoking for Women A Report of the Surgeon General. Washington: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, Office of the Assistant Secretary for Health, Office on Smoking and Health; 1980. 

697. US Department of Health and Human Services.  The Health Consequences of Smoking: The Changing Cigarette A Report of the Surgeon General. Rockville (MD): U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, Office on Smoking and Health; 1981. DHHS Publication No. (PHS) 81–50156.

698. US Department of Health and Human Services.  The Health Consequences of Smoking: Cancer A Report of the Surgeon General.Washington: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, Office on Smoking and Health; 1982. DHHS Publication No. (PHS) 82–50179.

699. US Department of Health and Human Services.  The Health Consequences of Involuntary Smoking A Report of the Surgeon General. Atlanta: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, Centers for Disease Control, Center for Health Promotion and Education, Office on Smoking and Health; 1986. DHHS Publication No. (CDC) 87–8398.

700. US Department of Health and Human Services.  Reducing the Health Consequences of Smoking: 25 Years of Progress A Report of the Surgeon General. Atlanta: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, Centers for Disease Control, Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion, Office on Smoking and Health; 1989. DHHS Publication No. (CDC) 89–8411.

701. US Department of Health and Human Services.  The Health Benefits of Smoking Cessation A Report of the Surgeon General. Atlanta: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, Centers for Disease Control, Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion, Office on Smoking and Health; 1990. DHHS Publication No. (CDC) 90–8416.

702. US Department of Health and Human Services.  Tobacco Use Among US Racial/Ethnic Minority Groups—African Americans, American Indians and Alaska Natives, Asian Americans and Pacific Islanders, and Hispanics A Report of the Surgeon General. Atlanta: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion, Office on Smoking and Health; 1998. 

703. US Department of Health and Human Services.  9th Report on Carcinogens. Research Triangle Park (NC): U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, National Toxicology Program; 2000. 

704. US Department of Health and Human Services.  Women and Smoking A Report of the Surgeon General. Rockville (MD): U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, Office of the Surgeon General; 2001. 

705. US Department of Health, Education, and Welfare.  Smoking and Health Report of the Advisory Committee to the Surgeon General of the Public Health Service. Washington: U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Public Health Service; 1964. PHS Publication No. 1103.

706. US Department of Health, Education, and Welfare.  The Health Consequences of Smoking: A Public Health Service Review, 1967.Washington: U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Public Health Service, National Center for Chronic Disease Control; 1967. PHS Publication No. 1696.

707. US Department of Health, Education, and Welfare.  The Health Consequences of Smoking: 1968 Supplement to the 1967 Public Health Service Review. Washington: U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Public Health Service; 1968. 

708. US Department of Health, Education, and Welfare.  The Health Consequences of Smoking A Report of the Surgeon General: 1971.Washington: U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Public Health Service and Mental Health Administration; 1971. DHEW Publication No. (HSM) 71–7513.

709. US Department of Health, Education, and Welfare.  The Health Consequences of Smoking A Report of the Surgeon General, 1972.Washington: U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Public Health Service, Health Services and Mental Health Administration; 1972. DHEW Publication No. (HSM) 72–7516.

710. US Department of Health, Education, and Welfare.  The Health Consequences of Smoking A Report of the Surgeon General, 1974.Washington: U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Public Health Service, Center for Disease Control; 1974. DHEW Publication No. (CDC) 74–8704.

711. US Department of Health, Education, and Welfare.  Smoking and Health A Report of the Surgeon General. Washington: U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Public Health Service, Office of the Assistant Secretary for Health, Office on Smoking and Health; 1979. DHEW Publication No. (PHS) 79–50066.

712. Ursin G, Aragaki CC, Paganini-Hill A, Siemiatycki J, Thompson WD, Haile RW. Oral contraceptives and premenopausal bilateral breast cancer: a case-control study. Epidemiology. 1992;3(5):414–9. [PubMed]

713. Vaezi MF, Falk GW, Peek RM, Vicari JJ, Goldblum JR, Perez-Perez GI, Rice TW, Blaser MJ, Richter JE. CagA-positive strains of Helicobacter pylori may protect against Barrett’s esophagus. American Journal of Gastroenterology. 2000;95(9):2206–11. [PubMed]

714. van den Brandt PA, Goldbohm RA, van’t Veer P. Alcohol and breast cancer: results from the Netherlands Cohort Study. American Journal of Epidemiology. 1995;141(10):907–15. [PubMed]

715. van der Gulden JW, Verbeek AL, Kolk JJ. Smoking and drinking habits in relation to prostate cancer. British Journal of Urology. 1994;73(4):382–9. [PubMed]

716. van Schooten FJ, Hillebrand MJ, van Leeuwen FE, Lutgerink JT, van Zandwijk N, Jansen HM, Kriek E. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon-DNA adducts in lung tissue from lung cancer patients. Carcinogenesis. 1990;11(9):1677–81. [PubMed]

717. Vatten LJ, Kvinnsland S. Cigarette smoking and risk of breast cancer: a prospective study of 24,329 Norwegian women. European Journal of Cancer. 1990;26(7):830–3. [PubMed]

718. Vaughan TL, Davis S, Kristal A, Thomas DB. Obesity, alcohol, and tobacco as risk factors for cancers of the esophagus and gastric cardia: adenocarcinoma versus squamous cell carcinoma. Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers and Prevention. 1995;4(2):85–92. [PubMed]

719. Vaury C, Laine R, Noguiez P, de Coppet P, Jaulin C, Praz F, Pompon D, Amor-Gueret M. Human glutathione S-transferase M1 null genotype is associated with a high inducibility of cytochrome P450 1A1 gene transcription. Cancer Research. 1995;55(23):5520–3. [PubMed]

720. Veierod MB, Laake P, Thelle DS. Dietary fat intake and risk of prostate cancer: a prospective study of 25,708 Norwegian men. International Journal of Cancer. 1997;73(5):634–8. [PubMed]

721. Vicari JJ, Peek RM, Falk GW, Goldblum JR, Easley KA, Schnell J, Perez-Perez GI, Halter SA, Rice TW, Blaser MJ, Richter JE. Seroprevalence of cagA -positive Helicobacter pylori strains in the spectrum of gastro-esophageal reflux disease. Gastroenterology. 1998;115(1):50–7. [PubMed]

722. Viladiu P, Izquierdo A, de Sanjose S, Bosch FX. A breast cancer case-control study in Girona, Spain: endocrine, familial and lifestyle factors. European Journal of Cancer Prevention. 1996;5(5):329–35. [PubMed]

723. Villeneuve PJ, Johnson KC, Hanley AJ, Mao Y. Alcohol, tobacco and coffee consumption and the risk of pancreatic cancer: results from the Canadian Enhanced Surveillance System case-control project. Canadian Cancer Registries Epidemiology Research Group. European Journal of Cancer Prevention. 2000;9(1):49–58. [PubMed]

724. Vincent RG, Marchetta F. The relationship of the use of tobacco and alcohol to cancer of the oral cavity, pharynx or larynx. American Journal of Surgery. 1963;106:501–5. [PubMed]

725. Vincent RG, Pickren JW, Lane WW, Bross I, Takita H, Houten L, Gutierrez AC, Rzepka T. The changing histopathology of lung cancer: a review of 1682 cases. Cancer. 1977;39(4):1647–55. [PubMed]

726. Vineis P. Use of biomarkers in epidemiology: the example of metabolic susceptibility to cancer. Toxicology Letters. 1995;77(1–3):163–8.[PubMed]

727. Vineis P, Caporaso N. Tobacco and cancer: epidemiology and the laboratory. Environmental Health Perspectives. 1995;103(2):156–60.[PMC free article] [PubMed]

728. Vineis P, Veglia F, Benhamou S, Butkiewicz D, Cascorbi I, Clapper ML, Dolzan V, Haugen A, Hirvonen A, Ingelman-Sundberg M, Kihara M, Kiyohara C, Kremers P, Le Marchand L, Ohshima S, Pastorelli R, Rannug A, Romkes M, Schoket B, Shields P, Strange RC, Stucker I, Sugimura H, Garte S, Gaspari L, Taioli E. CYP1A1 T3801 C polymorphism and lung cancer: a pooled analysis of 2,451 cases and 3,358 controls. International Journal of Cancer. 2003;104(5):650–7.[PubMed]

729. Vogelstein B, Kinzler KW, editors. The Genetic Basis of Human Cancer. New York: McGraw-Hill; 1998. 

730. Vonlanthen S, Heighway J, Tschan MP, Borner MM, Altermatt HJ, Kappeler A, Tobler A, Fey MF, Thatcher N, Yarbrough WG, Betticher DC. Expression of p16INK4a/p16? and p19ARF/p16? is frequently altered in non-small cell lung cancer and correlates with p53 overexpression. Oncogene. 1998;17(21):2779–85. [PubMed]

731. Vulimiri SV, Wu X, Baer-Dubowska W, de Andrade M, Detry M, Spitz MR, DiGiovanni J. Analysis of aromatic DNA adducts and 7,8-dihydro-8-oxo-2?-deoxyguanosine in lymphocyte DNA from a case-control study of lung cancer involving minority populations. Molecular Carcinogenesis. 2000;27(1):34–46. [PubMed]

732. Vutuc C, Kunze M. Lung cancer risk in women in relation to tar yields of cigarettes. Preventive Medicine. 1982;11(6):713–6. [PubMed]

733. Walboomers JMM, Jacobs MV, Manos MM, Bosch FX, Kummer JA, Shah KV, Snijders PJF, Peto J, Meijer CJLM, Muñoz N. Human papillomavirus is a necessary cause of invasive cervical cancer worldwide. Journal of Pathology. 1999;189(1):12–9. [PubMed]

734. Wallace L. Environmental exposure to benzene: an update. Environmental Health Perspectives. 1996;104(Suppl 6):1129–36. [PMC free article] [PubMed]

735. Walter SD, Iwane M. Re: “Interaction of alcohol and tobacco in laryngeal cancer. American Journal of Epidemiology. 1983;117(5):639–41. [PubMed]

736. Wang CX, Watanabe K, Weisburger JH, Williams GM. Induction of colon cancer in inbred Syrian hamsters by intrarectal administration of benzo[a]pyrene, 3-methylcholanthrene and N-methyl-N-nitrosourea. Cancer Letters. 1985;27(3):309–14. [PubMed]

737. Wang LD, Hong JY, Qiu SL, Gao H, Yang CS. Accumulation of p53 protein in human esophageal precan-cerous lesions: a possible early biomarker for car-cinogenesis. Cancer Research. 1993;53(8):1783–7.[PubMed]

738. Wang LD, Zhou Q, Hong J-Y, Qiu S-L, Yang CS. P53 protein accumulation and gene mutations in multi-focal esophageal precancerous lesions from symptom free subjects in a high incidence area for esophageal carcinoma in Henan, China. Cancer. 1996;77(7):1244–9. [PubMed]

739. Wang LE, Sturgis EM, Eicher SA, Spitz MR, Hong WK, Wei Q. Mutagen sensitivity to benzo(a)pyrene diol epoxide and the risk of squamous cell carcinoma of the head and neck. Clinical Cancer Research. 1998;4(7):1773–8. [PubMed]

740. Wang QS, Ross RK, Yu MC, Ning JP, Henderson BE, Kimm HT. A case-control study of breast cancer in Tianjin, China. Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers and Prevention. 1992;1(6):435–9. [PubMed]

741. Washimi O, Nagatake M, Osada H, Ueda R, Koshikawa T, Seki T, Takahashi T, Takahashi T. In vivo occurrence of p16 (MTS1) and p15 (MTS2) alterations preferentially in non-small cell lung cancers. Cancer Research. 1995;55(3):514–7. [PubMed]

742. Wedlund PJ, Kimura S, Gonzalez FJ, Nebert DW. I462V mutation in the human CYP1A1 gene: lack of correlation with either Msp I 1.9 kb (m2) allele or CYP1A1 inducibility in a three-generation family of east Mediterranean descent. Pharmacogenetics. 1994;4(1):21–6. [PubMed]

743. Weiderpass E, Baron JA. Cigarette smoking, alcohol consumption, and endometrial cancer risk: a population-based study in Sweden. Cancer Causes and Control. 2001;12(3):239–47. [PubMed]

744. Weir JM, Dunn JE Jr. Smoking and mortality: a prospective study. Cancer. 1970;25(1):105–12. [PubMed]

745. Weiss W, Bernarde MA. The temporal relation between cigarette smoking and pancreatic cancer. American Journal of Public Health. 1983;73(12):1403–4. [PMC free article] [PubMed]

746. Wells AJ. Breast cancer, cigarette smoking, and passive smoking [letter] American Journal of Epidemiology. 1991;133(2):208–10. [PubMed]

747. Wells AJ. Re: “Breast cancer, cigarette smoking, and passive smoking” [letter] American Journal of Epidemiology. 1998;147(10):991–2.[PubMed]

748. Westoff C, Gentile G, Lee J, Zacur H, Helbig D. Predictors of ovarian steroid secretion in reproductive-age women. American Journal of Epidemiology. 1996;144(4):381–8. [PubMed]

749. Weston A, Bowman ED, Shields PG, Trivers GE, Poirier MC, Santella RM, Manchester DK. Detection of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon-DNA adducts in human lung. Environmental Health Perspectives. 1993;99:257–9. [PMC free article] [PubMed]

750. Westra WH, Sidransky D. Phenotypic and genotypic disparity in premalignant lesions: of calm water and crocodiles

[editorial]

 Journal of the National Cancer Institute. 1998;90(20):1500–1. [PubMed]

751. Whang-Peng J, Kao-Shan CS, Lee EC, Bunn PA, Carney DN, Gazdar AF, Minna JD. Specific chromosome defect associated with human small-cell lung cancer; deletion 3p(14–23). Science. 1982;215(4529):181–2. [PubMed]

752. White C. Research on smoking and lung cancer: a landmark in the history of chronic disease epidemiology. Yale Journal of Biology and Medicine. 1990;63(1):29–46. [PMC free article] [PubMed]

753. White E, Malone KE, Weiss NS, Daling JR. Breast cancer among young U.S. women in relation to oral contraceptive use. Journal of the National Cancer Institute. 1994;86(7):505–14. [PubMed]

754. Whittemore AS, Paffenbarger RS Jr, Anderson K, Lee JE. Early precursors of site-specific cancers in college men and women. Journal of the National Cancer Institute. 1985;74(1):43–51. [PubMed]

755. Wiencke JK, Kelsey KT, Lamela RA, Toscano WA Jr. Human glutathione S-transferase deficiency as a marker of susceptibility to epoxide-induced cytogenic damage. Cancer Research. 1990;50(5):1585–90. [PubMed]

756. Wiencke JK, Kelsey KT, Varkonyi A, Semey K, Wain JC, Mark E, Christiani DC. Correlation of DNA adducts in blood mononuclear cells with tobacco carcinogen-induced damage in human lung. Cancer Research. 1995a;55(21):4910–4. [PubMed]

757. Wiencke JK, Pemble S, Ketterer B, Kelsey KT. Gene deletion of glutathione S-transferase theta: correlation with induced genetic damage and potential role in endogenous mutagenesis. Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers and Prevention. 1995b;4(3):253–9.[PubMed]

758. Wiencke JK, Thurston SW, Kelsey KT, Varkonyi A, Wain JC, Mark EJ, Christiani DC. Early age at smoking initiation and tobacco carcinogen DNA damage in the lung. Journal of the National Cancer Institute. 1999;91(7):614–9. [PubMed]

759. Wilcox HB, Schoenberg JB, Mason TJ, Bill JS, Stemhagen A. Smoking and lung cancer: risk as a function of cigarette tar content. Preventive Medicine. 1988;17(3):263–72. [PubMed]

760. Willett W, Stampfer MJ, Bain C, Lipnick R, Speizer FE, Rosner B, Cramer D, Hennekens CH. Cigarette smoking, relative weight, and menopause. American Journal of Epidemiology. 1983;117(6):651–8.[PubMed]

761. Willett WC, Stampfer MJ, Colditz GA, Rosner BA, Hennekens CH, Speizer FE. Moderate alcohol consumption and the risk of breast cancer. New England Journal of Medicine. 1987;316(19):1174–80.[PubMed]

762. Williams RR, Horm JW. Association of cancer sites with tobacco and alcohol consumption and socioeconomic status of patients: interview study from the Third National Cancer Survey. Journal of the National Cancer Institute. 1977;58(3):525–47. [PubMed]

763. Wingo PA, Ries LA, Giovino GA, Miller DS, Rosenberg HM, Shopland DR, Thun MJ, Edwards BK. Annual report to the nation on the status of cancer, 1973– 1996, with a special section on lung cancer and tobacco smoking. Journal of the National Cancer Institute. 1999;91(8):675–90.[PubMed]

764. Winkelstein W Jr. Smoking and cancer of the uterine cervix: hypothesis. American Journal of Epidemiology. 1977;106(4):257–9. [PubMed]

765. Winters C Jr, Spurling TJ, Chobanian SJ, Curtis DJ, Esposito RL, Hacker JF III, Johnson DA, Cruess DF, Cotelingam JD, Gurney MS, Cattau EL Jr. Barrett’s esophagus: a prevalent, occult complication of gastroesophageal reflux disease. Gastroenterology. 1987;92(1):118–24.[PubMed]

766. Wistuba II, Behrens C, Milchgrub S, Bryant D, Hung J, Minna JD, Gazdar AF. Sequential molecular abnormalities are involved in the multistage development of squamous cell lung carcinoma. Oncogene. 1999;18(3):634–50. [PubMed]

767. Wistuba II, Lam S, Behrens C, Virmani AK, Fong KM, Le Riche J, Samet JM, Srivastava S, Minna JD, Gazdar AF. Molecular damage in the bronchial epithelium of current and former smokers. Journal of the National Cancer Institute. 1997;89(18):1366–73. [PMC free article] [PubMed]

768. Wong DJ, Barrett MT, Stoger R, Emond MJ, Reid BJ. p16INK4a promoter is hypermethylated at a high frequency in esophageal adenocarcinomas. Cancer Research. 1997;57(13):2619–22. [PubMed]

769. Wu AH, Paganini-Hill A, Ross RK, Henderson BE. Alcohol, physical activity and other risk factors for colorectal cancer: a prospective study. British Journal of Cancer. 1987;55(6):687–94. [PMC free article] [PubMed]

770. Wu-Williams AH, Samet JM. Lung cancer and cigarette smoking. In: Samet JM, editor. Epidemiology of Lung Cancer. New York: Marcel Dekker; 1994. pp. 71–108.

771. Wu-Williams AH, Yu MC, Mack TM. Life-style, work-place, and stomach cancer by subsite in young men of Los Angeles County. Cancer Research. 1990;50(9):2569–76. [PubMed]

772. Wynder EL, Covey LS, Mabuchi K, Mushinski M. Environmental factors in cancer of the larynx: a second look. Cancer. 1976;38(4):1591–601. [PubMed]

773. Wynder EL, Kabat GC. The effect of low-yield cigarette smoking on lung cancer risk. Cancer. 1988;62(6):1223–30. [PubMed]

774. Wynder EL, Mabuchi K, Beattie EJ Jr. The epidemiology of lung cancer: recent trends. Journal of the American Medical Association. 1970;213(13):2221–8. [PubMed]

775. Wynder EL, Muscat JE. The changing epidemiology of smoking and lung cancer histology. Environmental Health Perspectives. 1995;103(Suppl 8):143–8. [PMC free article] [PubMed]

776. Wynder EL, Stellman SD. Impact of long-term filter cigarette usage on lung and larynx cancer risk: a case-control study. Journal of the National Cancer Institute. 1979;62(3):471–7. [PubMed]

777. Yamasaki E, Ames BN. Concentration of mutagens from urine by absorption with the nonpolar resin XAD-2: cigarette smokers have mutagenic urine. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA. 1977;74(8):3555–9. [PMC free article] [PubMed]

778. Yang CP, Daling JR, Band PR, Gallagher RP, White E, Weiss NS. Noncontraceptive hormone use and risk of breast cancer. Cancer Causes and Control. 1992;3(5):475–9. [PubMed]

779. Yang P, Cunningham JM, Halling KC, Lesnick TG, Burgart LJ, Wiegert EM, Christensen ER, Lindor NM, Katzmann JA, Thibodeau SN. Higher risk of mismatch repair-deficient colorectal cancer in ?1- antitrypsin deficiency carriers and cigarette smokers. Molecular Genetics and Metabolism. 2000;71(4):639–45. [PubMed]

780. Ye W, Ekström AM, Hansson L-E, Bergström R, Nyrén O. Tobacco, alcohol and the risk of gastric cancer by sub-site and histologic type. International Journal of Cancer. 1999;83(2):223–9. [PubMed]

781. Ylitalo N, Sorensen P, Josefsson A, Frisch M, Sparen P, Ponten J, Gyllensten U, Melbye M, Adami HO. Smoking and oral contraceptives as risk factors for cervical carcinoma in situ. International Journal of Cancer. 1999;81(3):357–65. [PubMed]

782. Yoo K-Y, Tajima K, Miura S, Takeuchi T, Hirose K, Risch H, Dubrow R. Breast cancer risk factors according to combined estrogen and progesterone receptor status: a case-control analysis. American Journal of Epidemiology. 1997;146(4):307–14. [PubMed]

783. You W-C, Blot WJ, Chang Y-S, Ershow AG, Yang Z-T, An Q, Henderson B, Xu G-W, Fraumeni JF Jr, Wang T-G. Diet and high risk of stomach cancer in Shandong, China. Cancer Research. 1988;48(12):3518–23. [PubMed]

784. You W-C, Zhang L, Gail MH, Chang Y-S, Liu W-D, Ma J-L, Li J-Y, Jin M-L, Hu Y-R, Yang C-S, Blaser MJ, Correa P, Blot WJ, Fraumeni JF Jr, Xu G-W. Gastric dysplasia and gastric cancer: Helicobacter pylori, serum vitamin C, and other risk factors. Journal of the National Cancer Institute. 2000;92(19):1607–12. [PubMed]

785. Yu G-P, Hsieh C-C. Risk factors for stomach cancer: a population-based case-control study in Shanghai. Cancer Causes and Control. 1991;2(3):169–74. [PubMed]

786. Yu H, Harris RE, Kabat GC, Wynder EL. Cigarette smoking, alcohol consumption and primary liver cancer: a case-control study in the USA. International Journal of Cancer. 1988;42(3):325–8. [PubMed]

787. Yu MC, Mack T, Hanisch R, Peters RL, Henderson BE, Pike MC. Hepatitis, alcohol consumption, cigarette smoking, and hepatocellular carcinoma in Los Angeles. Cancer Research. 1983;43(12 Pt 1):6077–9.[PubMed]

788. Yu Y, Taylor PR, Li J-Y, Dawsey SM, Wang G-Q, Guo W-D, Wang W, Liu B-Q, Blot WJ, Shen Q, Li B. Retrospective cohort study of risk-factors for esophageal cancer in Linxian, People’s Republic of China. Cancer Causes and Control. 1993;4(3):195–202. [PubMed]

789. Yuan JM, Yu MC, Ross RK, Gao YT, Henderson BE. Risk factors for breast cancer in Chinese women in Shanghai. Cancer Research. 1988;48(7):1949–53. [PubMed]

790. Zahm SH, Cocco P, Blair A. Tobacco smoking as a risk factor for colon polyps. American Journal of Public Health. 1991;81(7):846–9. [PMC free article] [PubMed]

791. Zambon P, Talamini R, La Vecchia C, Dal Maso L, Negri E, Tognazzo S, Simonato L, Franceschi S. Smoking, type of alcoholic beverage and squamous-cell oesophageal cancer in Northern Italy. International Journal of Cancer. 2000;86(1):144–9. [PubMed]

792. Zang EA, Wynder EL. Cumulative tar exposure: a new index for estimating lung cancer risk among cigarette smokers. Cancer. 1992;70(1):69–76. [PubMed]

793. Zaridze D, Borisova E, Maximovitch D, Chkhikvadze V. Alcohol consumption, smoking and risk of gastric cancer: case-control study from Moscow, Russia. Cancer Causes and Control. 2000;11(4):363–71.[PubMed]

794. Zatonski W, Becher H, Lissowska J, Wahrendorf J. Tobacco, alcohol, and diet in the etiology of laryngeal cancer: a population-based case-control study. Cancer Causes and Control. 1991;2(1):3–10. [PubMed]

795. Zatonski WA, Boyle P, Przewozniak K, Maisonneuve P, Drosik K, Walker AM. Cigarette smoking, alcohol, tea and coffee consumption and pancreas cancer risk: a case-control study from Opole, Poland. International Journal of Cancer. 1993;53(4):601–7. [PubMed]

796. Zhang Z-Y, Fasco MJ, Huang L, Guengerich FP, Kaminsky LS. Characterization of purified human recombinant cytochrome P4501A1-Ile462 and -Val462: assessment of a role for the rare allele in carcinogenesis. Cancer Research. 1996;56(17):3926–33. [PubMed]

797. Zheng T, Cantor KP, Zhang Y, Chiu BCH, Lynch CF. Risk of brain glioma not associated with cigarette smoking or use of other tobacco products in Iowa. Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers and Prevention. 2001;10(4):413–4. [PubMed]

798. Zheng W, Blot WJ, Shu XO, Gao YT, Ji BT, Ziegler RG, Fraumeni JF Jr. Diet and other risk factors for laryngeal cancer in Shanghai, China. American Journal of Epidemiology. 1992;136(2):178–91. [PubMed]

799. Zheng W, McLaughlin JK, Gridley G, Bjeike E, Schuman LM, Silverman DT, Wacholder S, Co-Chien HT, Blot WJ, Fraumeni JF Jr. A cohort study of smoking, alcohol consumption, and dietary factors for pancreatic cancer (United States). Cancer Causes and Control. 1993;4(5):477–82. [PubMed]

800. Zhong S, Howie AF, Ketterer B, Taylor J, Hayes JD, Beckett GJ, Wathen CG, Wolf CR, Spurr NK. Glutathione S-transferase mu locus: use of genotyping and phenotyping assays to assess association with lung cancer susceptibility. Carcinogenesis. 1991;12(9):1533–7.[PubMed]

801. Ziegler A, Jonason AS, Leffell DJ, Simon JA, Sharma HW, Kimmelman J, Remington L, Jacks T, Brash DE. Sunburn and p53 in the onset of skin cancer. Nature. 1994;372(6508):773–6. [PubMed]

802. Zondervan KT, Ocké MC, Smit HA, Seidell JC. Do dietary and supplementary intakes of antioxidants differ with smoking status? International Journal of Epidemiology. 1996;25(1):70–9. [PubMed]

Footnotes

1

Pack-years = The number of years of smoking multiplied by the number of packs of cigarettes smoked per day.

2

ETS 

Disclaimer: The author of each article published on this web site owns his or her own words. The opinions, beliefs and viewpoints expressed by the various authors and forum participants on this site do not necessarily reflect the opinions, beliefs and viewpoints of Utah Standard News or official policies of the USN and may actually reflect positions that USN actively opposes. No claim in public domain or fair use.    © Edmunds Tucker. UTopiAH are trade marks of the author. Utopia was written in 1515 by Sir Thomas More, Chancellor of England. A word of wisdom.

[ 2004 Health Consequences of Smoking: the Surgeon General continues next at Part  98.]